Tag Archives: iron

Nutritional Challenges of Vegetarian Diets in Children

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K Puri et al. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr. 2025;81:1–4. Nutritional and growth concerns of vegetarian diets in children

Key points:

  • “Although vegetarian diets have become popular due to their benefits on environment, they pose nutritional challenges due to the risk of developing nutrient or caloric deficiencies which may impact health or growth in children and adolescents.”
  • “Any child or family who adheres to a strict vegetarian diet [needs to] work with a nutrition specialist or registered dietitian familiar with the nutritional concerns of a vegetarian diet. This includes calcium and iron intake as well as sufficient and diverse protein intake. B12 and vitamin D supplementation should be considered in vegetarian children”
  • “While data suggest that average anthropometrics are similar between vegetarian/vegan and omnivorous children, there is some concern regarding the risk of being underweight while following a vegetarian diet…. a vegetarian diet can be a safe and complete diet for children when detailed and longitudinal attention is given to diversification of nutrient intake.”

My take: This article provides a useful review of the dietary issues that need to be monitored for pediatric vegetarians. I agree that a visit with a nutritionist is worthwhile for these children.

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Time to Revise ImproveCareNow Micronutrient Recommendations

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With ImproveCareNow, there have been efforts to minimize variation in care.  As such, there have been suggestions to monitor labs like vitamin D, vitamin B12, and folate routinely. I have voiced concern that some of this testing is unnecessary.  For vitamin B12, deficiency in pediatrics is rare; at risk populations include those with extensive small bowel resections, gastric resections or strict vegan diet.

A recent article (J Fritz et al. Inflamm Bowel Dis 2019; 25: 445-59) which is a systematic review of micronutrients in pediatric inflammatory bowel disease provides further support for the approach of less testing.

Key points:

  • A total of 39 studies were included in the final review (2903 subjects, 1115 controls)
  • Iron deficiency and vitamin D deficiency are common in pediatric patients with IBD
  • Vitamin B12 and folate deficiency are rare
  • Zinc deficiency is uncommon but increased in patients with Crohn’s disease compared to healthy controls.
  • The authors recommend routine (at least yearly) testing for iron, vitamin D and zinc and that there is “insufficient evidence to support routine screening for other micronutrient deficiencies.”

My take: Except in patients with surgical resections and in those with unusual diets (eg. vegan), routinely checking vitamin B12, folate and most other micronutrients is unnecessary & low value care.

Related blog posts:

Vitamin B12:

Vitamin D:

Iron:

Disclaimer: These blog posts are for educational purposes only. Specific dosing of medications/diets (along with potential adverse effects) should be confirmed by prescribing physician/nutritionist.  This content is not a substitute for medical advice, diagnosis or treatment provided by a qualified healthcare provider. Always seek the advice of your physician or other qualified health provider with any questions you may have regarding a condition.

Iron Deficiency Common in Patients Requiring Long-Term Parenteral Nutrition

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A recent study (JPEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr May 13, 2015 0148607115587329) demonstates a high rate of iron deficiency anemia in patients requiring home parenteral nutrition (Thanks to Kipp Ellsworth for reference).

From Abstract:

Methods: Medical records of patients receiving HPN at the Mayo Clinic from 1977 to 2010 were reviewed. Diagnoses, time to IDA development, and hemoglobin, ferritin, and mean corpuscular volume (MCV) values were extracted. Response of iron indices to intravenous iron replacement was investigated.

Results: Of 185 patients (122 women), 60 (32.4%) were iron deficient…Of 93 patients who had sufficient iron storage, 37 had IDA development after a mean of 27.2 months (range, 2–149 months) of therapy. Iron was replaced by adding maintenance iron dextran to PN or by therapeutic iron infusion. Patients with both replacement methods had significant improvement in iron status. With intravenous iron replacement, mean ferritin increased from 10.9 to 107.6 mcg/L (P < .0001); mean hemoglobin increased from 11.0 to 12.5 g/dL (P = .0001); and mean MCV increased from 84.5 to 89.0 fL (P = .007).

Conclusions: Patients receiving HPN are susceptible to IDA. Iron supplementation should be addressed for patients who rely on PN.

Zoo Atlanta

Zoo Atlanta

 

Micronutrient Monitoring in Intestinal Failure

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J Pediatr 2013; 163: 1692-6.  This retrospective study of prospectively collected data from 178 children provides data with regard to micronutrient deficiency among intestinal failure patients transitioning to enteral feeds. Figures 1 and 2 along with Table 2 provide the prevalence of micronutrient deficiency while receiving supplemental parenteral nutrition (PN) and while on full enteral nutrition (FEN).  Iron deficiency was most common in both situations with prevalence of 84% and 61% respectively. With the exception of folate (0%), all of the vitamins and micronutrients had fairly high rates of deficiency.  While on FEN,  deficiencies were  the following:

  • Vitamin A        19%
  • Vitamin B12    6.5%
  • Vitamin D        30%
  • Vitamin E          6%
  • Copper            8%
  • Iron                61%
  • Selenium         4%
  • Zinc               23%

The study does not indicate that the deficiency values were adjusted based on CRP values.  Instead, “low serum levels were used to define deficiencies.”  This is likely to lead to numerous errors.  Nevertheless, it is clear that these deficiencies are common.  Another finding of the study was that normal anthropometrics did not reduce the frequency of these deficiencies.  In their patient population, 57 of 136 (42%) with sufficient height and weight data had a height-for-age z-scores of <-2 by the time of FEN; where as 52 of 139 patients (37%) had weight-for-age z-scores of <-2.

A recent post on The Pediatric Nutritionist blog provides a suggested approach to the monitoring of vitamins and micronutrients based on the need for parenteral nutrition and on the need to consider inflammatory markers in the interpretation of these lab values: The Importance of Nutrition Lab Monitoring Protocols Featuring …

Bottomline: Vitamin and micronutrient deficiencies are common among intestinal failure patients.  In addition, a large percentage of these kids are not large at all.

Related blog post:

What happens to micronutrient levels in the hospital setting …

PPI Side Effects: “Dissecting the Evidence”

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While proton pump inhibitors (PPIs) are used extensively for acid-related diseases and have been around for nearly 25 years, there have been a number of reports about potential side effects.  As a drug class, PPIs have a very good safety profile.  A recent article reviews some controversial adverse effects and summarizes the evidence for and against (Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol 2013; 11: 458-64).

I. Calcium/bone effects.  After reviewing a number of studies, the authors conclude: “There is no good evidence to establish that PPI use has a significant risk for bone density loss or osteroporotic-related fractures….Supplemental calcium is not recommended or justified solely because of PPI use.”

II. Iron. “Although it is conceivable that PPI therapy may reduce absorption of nonheme iron and retard iron pool replenishment, this effect has not been well-studied or evident from widespread use in clinical practice.

III.  Magnesium.  “The FDA recommendation to consider checking magnesium levels before starting is not practical, in particular for the over-the-counter market. In patients who may be predisposed to …ongoing magnesium loss…it may be reasonable to follow…Given the rarity of the reports and no controlled studies to delineate the mechanisms, it is important for health care providers to be aware of this” (rare reports of profound hypomagnesemia).

IV. Pneumonia. “Small relative risk associated with short-term and high-dose PPI use.  These relationships, however, do not offer a definitive explanation for the relative risk” due to the studies and confounding factors.

V. Clostridium difficile.  “To date, there is insufficient evidence to conclude that there is a definitive relationship between PPI use and C difficile infection…clinicians should be aware of this potential relationship.”

VI. Traveler’s diarrhea.  “The data…were overall supportive of no associated risk, albeit there were a few specific case reports suggesting a remote causal association.”

VII. Small intestinal bacterial overgrowth. “The relationship between PPI use and the development of SIBO is still not understood.”

VIII. Interstitial nephritis.  Extremely rare. “Investigators…did not find enough evidence to support a causative relationship.”

IX. Methotrexate.  “Coadministration of PPIs with high-dose methotrexate appears to be correlated with delayed methotrexate elimination.”

Also discussed: Vitamin B12, Clopidogrel, Spontaneous bacterial peritonitis

The authors conclude that the above reported associations have received considerable attention.  “Because PPIs are overprescribed in many patients, …the clinical effects always should be reviewed and attempts should be justified to stop any therapy that may not be needed.”

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Iron and hepcidin –not just for grownups

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As alluded to in a previous post (Help with hepcidin), hepcidin is integral to iron metabolism.  In a recent study (J Pediatr 2012; 160: 949-53), serum and urine hepcidin concentrations in preterm infants were found to correlate well with iron homeostasis markers in preterm infants.

This study examined 31 preterm infants (23-32 weeks gestational age).

Findings:

  • Serum hepcidin was highest in infants with systemic inflammation.
  • Both serum and urine hepcidin correlated strongly with ferritin (Figure 2 in study) and negatively with soluble transferrin receptor/ferritin-ratio.
  • Infants with lower hemoglobin concentrations and higher reticulocyte counts had lower serum hepcidin.
  • There was good correlation between urine and serum hepcidin (Figure 1 in study). As such, urine hepcidin may become useful non-invasive marker for iron status in sick preterm infants