Tag Archives: celiac disease

Reasons for refeeding syndrome

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Refeeding syndrome (RFS) is defined as the potentially fatal shifts in fluid and electrolytes that may occur in malnourished patients who are abruptly refed either enterally or parenterally.  The biochemical hallmark is hypophosphatemia.  Other changes can include hypokalemia, hypomagnesemia, and thiamin deficiency.  RFS can worsen the prognosis of children with celiac crisis as well (JPGN 2012; 54: 522-5).

A chart review from Lucknow, India from Jan-Dec 2010, identified 5 cases of RFS among 35 celiac patients.  All were severely malnourished.  All had anemia, hypoalbuminemia, hypophosphatemia, hypokalemia, and hypomagnesemia.  All improved with initial caloric restriction followed by gradual escalation of caloric intake along with electrolyte supplementation.

This article shows that a variety of causes of malnutrition can lead to refeeding syndrome. Considering refeeding syndrome in any severely malnourished child may help improve the prognosis by altering the nutritional management.

Additional references:

  • Nutr Clin Pract 2012; 27: 34-40. Reviewed refeeding syndrome publications since 2000.  Hypophosphatemia occurred in 96% of cases (26 of 27).
  • Crit Care Med 2010; 14: R172-R178.  Refeeding syndrome with anorexia.
  • Nutrition 2010; 26: 156-67. Review of refeeding syndrome treatment.
  • Nutr Clin Pract 2008; 23: 166-71.  Death due to refeeding syndrome.
  • JPEN 1990: 14.1; 90-97. Refeeding syndrome review.
  • Crit Care Med 1990; 18: 1030-1033. Review.

Food choices, FODMAPs, and gluten haters

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Given the frequency of functional gastrointestinal diseases (FGID), including irritable bowel syndrome (IBS), dietary treatments that may improve symptoms receive a lot of attention.  A recent review of the role of food choices in the development and management of FGIDs is a useful reference (Am J Gastroenterol 2012; 107: 657-66 -thanks to Ben Gold for forwarding this article).

This review details specific dietary advice as well as the following specific physiologic effects of FODMAPs:

  • Osmotic effects
  • Bacterial fermentation
  • Motility effects
  • Prebiotic effects
  • Systemic effects –mild depression, tiredness
In addition, the review looks at other potential foods which could serve as a trigger for IBS symptoms, like gluten & summarizes why some IBS patients are gluten haters.  The authors acknowledge that gluten sensitivity, in the absence of celiac disease, does not have a known mechanism.  Until a reliable marker becomes available, the importance of gluten sensitivity for FGIDs is unknown.
Related posts:

What to make of FODMAPs

Gluten sensitivity without celiac disease

Is a biopsy necessary in Celiac disease?

Is a biopsy necessary in Celiac disease?

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Yes, at least for now.  That is the conclusion of a recent editorial (JPGN 2012; 54: 310-11) regarding Kurpa et al (JPGN 2012; 54: 387-91).  The article by Kurpa et al discusses the utility of the ESPGHAN criteria for diagnosis of celiac disease.  Among the patients with strongly positive TTG (> 100 units), 94% had a diagnosis of Celiac disease confirmed with biopsy; in addition, this result correlated well with positive endomysial antibody and with positive DQ2/8. In those with TTG (30-99 units), Celiac disease was diagnosed in 69% of children and 86% of adults.

Additional references:

  • -JPGN 2011;52: 554. May not need to biopsy if TTG >100 & responds to GFD
  • -Clin Gastro & Hep 2011; 9: 320. Nat’l hx in children with +serology. n=106. 33% developed villous atrophy c/in 2 yrs.
  • -Gastroenterology 2010; 139: 763. Mortality NOT worsened in undiagnosed celiac dz in Olmstead County, though bone density decreased. n=129 of 16,847. (?milder cases undiagnosed)
  • -J Pediatr 2010; 157: 373, 353. Even pts w/o villous atrophy & +serology, benefited from GFD with regard to GI symptoms and serological markers.
  • -JPGN 2010; 50: 397. n=250. +association
  • -Mohamed BM, et al. The Absence of a Mucosal Lesion on Standard Histological Examination Does Not Exclude Diagnosis of Celiac Disease.  Dig Dis Sci. 2007 May 9;
  • -JPGN 2009; 49: 52. deamidated gliadin -new, accurate biomarker for celiac. n=302.
  • -Gastroenterology 2009; 137: 88. Increased mortality in undiagnosed celiac –4-fold increase. Also, increasing prevalence ~4 fold in last 50 yrs.
  • -Gastroenterology 1967; 52: 893-897. Seminal article ‘gluten as culprit in celiac’
  • -Gastroenterology 2009; 136: 816. Mild enteropathy w Celiac –still needs GFD
  • -JPGN 2008; 47: 618. duodenal bulb always abnl, n=665
  • -Clin Gastro & Hep 2008; 6: 753. Incidence of autoimmune diseases less in those compliant with diet. n=178.
  • -Clinical Gastro & Hep 2008; 6: 426. Usefulness of deamidated gliadin antibodies (about as useful as TTG). In this study with n=216 celiac pts and 124 controls, TTG had sensitivity of 78% and 98% specificity.
  • -JPGN 2007; 45: 497. ~1% of UK kids c celiac; 90% missed. Avon study (ALSPAC). n=5470 screened from cohort of 13,971
  • -NEJM 2007; 357: 1731. Nice review which suggests the introduction of gluten 4-7 months in healthy infants. HLA DQ2 present in 90-95%; HLA DQ8 in remainder. Both also present in gen population, 30-40%. Scalloping of mucosal folds often seen. Can stain bx for CD3, CD8 receptors. More refractory cases stain only for CD3 (neg for CD8).

Common to be “D-ficient”

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Many of the children that a pediatric gastroenterologist sees are at risk for Vitamin D deficiency, including children with inflammatory bowel disease, cystic fibrosis, celiac disease, and liver diseases.  In addition, vitamin D deficiency is widespread: in U.S. 50% of children aged 1-5 years and 70% 6-11 years are vitamin D deficient or insufficient. A thorough review on this “D-lightful” vitamin was in a recent JPEN (JPEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr 2012; 9S-19S).

History: In 1822 Sniadecki recognized children in urban but not rural Poland developed rickets. He postulated the effects of the sun as the reason for rickets; his idea was dismissed.  In 1920s, the concept of irradiating milk to prevent rickets emerged. In 1950s, outbreak of hypercalcemia in infants in Great Britain was thought to be related to vitamin D fortification and curtailed this practice in Europe.  However, these cases were likely due to Williams syndrome.

Sources of vitamin D: oily fish (salmon), cod liver oil, some mushrooms, egg yolk, & sunlight. Exposure of an adult in a bathing suit to one minimal erythemal dose (MED) is equivalent to ingesting 20,000 IUs of Vitamin D. (The minimal dose that induces any visible reddening at that point is defined as one MED.)

Effect of sunscreen: A sun protection factor (SPF) of 30 absorbs approximately 98% of solar ultaviolet radiation & thus lowers vitamin D production by 98%.

Ethnicity: Melanin is an effective SPF.  A person of african-american descent, on average, has an SPF of 15, which reduces vitamin D production by 90%.

Age: Aging decreases 7-dehydrocholesterol in human skin.  Due to this, the elderly produce much less vitamin D.  For example, a 70 year old has a 75% reduction compared to a 20 year old.

Forms of vitamin D:  25-hydroxyvitamin D (25OH-D) is the major circulating form of vitamin D & physicians measure 25OH-D. 25OH-D is metabolized in kidney to 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D (1,25OH-D), also called calcitriol.  This is the most biologically-active and is responsible for increasing intestinal calcium absorption and mobilizing calcium from bone.  However, 1,25OH-D provides no information vitamin D deficiency; it can be elevated or normal in deficiency states.

  • Cholecalciferol (vitamin D-3) is formed in the skin from 5-dihydrotachysterol.
  • Ergocalciferol (Vitamin D-2) is the form in Drisdol (8000 IU/mL) & Ergocalciferol Capsules (1.25 mg =50,000 USP Units)

Vitamin D deficiency:  The exact numbers are debated.  The institute of medicine (IOM) has considered individuals deficient if 25OH-D is <20 ng/mL.  The Endocrine Society and the author suggest vitamin D deficiency as <20 ng/mL & insufficiency as <30 ng/mL.  The author recommends ideal levels between 40-60 ng/mL.

Consequences of deficiency:

Osteoporosis, Osteopenia, Rickets (see references below): Bone weakening occurs due to loss of phosphorus from the kidneys.  Vitamin D deficiency lowers accrual of calcium in skeleton and leads to osteoporosis, osteopenia, and rickets. Imaging for rickets: the best single radiographic view for infants and children younger than 3 years is an anterior view of the knee that reveals the metaphyseal end and epiphysis of the femur and tibia. This site is best because growth is most rapid in this location, thus the changes are accentuated.

Nonskeletal consequences: vitamin D deficiency is associated with increased risk for preeclampsia, URIs, asthma, diabetes (type 1), multiple sclerosis, hypertension, and schizophrenia.

Treatment:

  • Infants who are breastfed should be receiving supplemental vitamin D, 400 IU/day.
  • Adults/children (>1 year) RDA 600 IU/day –mostly from diet per IOM. Yet author states, “it is unrealistic to believe that diet alone can ….provide this requirement.”
  • In vitamin D deficient patients: (initial treatment) 2000 IU/day or 50,000 IU/week for 6 weeks.
Toxicity from vitamin D (from NEJM 2010; 364: 248-254.): “Toxicity from vitamin D supplementation is rare and consists principally of acute hypercalcemia, which usually results from doses that exceed 10,000 IU per day; associated serum levels of 25-hydroxyvitamin D are well above 150 ng per milliliter (375 nmol per liter). The tolerable upper level of daily vitamin D intake recently set by the Institute of Medicine (IOM) is 4000 IU.”

Additional references:

  • -Pediatrics 2008; 122: 398. Should give 400 IU/day to breastfed babies. Consequences of Vit D deficiency: increased risk for DM, multiple sclerosis, cancer (breast, prostate,colon), rickets, and schizophrenia. Article lists vit D content of foods (high in cod liver oil, shrimp, fortified milk, many fish). Severe deficiency when < 5ng/mL, deficient if < 15 ng/mL; probably should be >32 ng/mL. Causes of vit D deficiency: decreased synthesis (due to lack of sun -skin pigmentation, sunscreen/clothing, geography, clouds), decreased intake, decreased maternal stores & breastfeeding, malabsorption (eg celiac, CF, EHBA, cholestasis), increased degradation; treatment of rickets: double-dose of vitamin d (~1000 IU/day for babies & 5000 for older kids) x 3-4 months along with calcium (30-75/mg/kg/day). Follow Ca/phos/alk phos monthly. Alternatively, give ~100,000 units over 1-5 days.
  • -JPEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr. 2011;35:308-316-Results: The study included 504 IBD patients (403 Crohn’s disease [CD] and 101 ulcerative colitis [UC]) who had a mean disease duration of 15.5 years in CD patients and 10.9 years in UC patients; 49.8% were vitamin D deficient, with 10.9% having severe deficiency. Vitamin D deficiency was associated with lower HRQOL (regression coefficient –2.21, 95% confidence interval [CI], –4.10 to –0.33) in CD but not UC (regression coefficient 0.41, 95% CI, –2.91 to 3.73). Vitamin D deficiency was also associated with increased disease activity in CD (regression coefficient 1.07, 95% CI, 0.43 to 1.71). Conclusions: Vitamin D deficiency is common in IBD and is independently associated with lower HRQOL and greater disease activity in CD. There is a need for prospective studies to assess this correlation and examine the impact of vitamin D supplementation on disease course.
  • -JPGN 2011;53: 361. similar prevalence of low Vitamin D as general population –58% with less than 32.
  • -JPGN 2011; 53: 11. Guidelines for bone disease with inflammatory bowel disease.
  • -Pediatrics 2010; 125: 633. Increasing Vit D deficiency noted in minority children. n=290. 22% w levels <20, 74% <30.
  • -Hepatology 2011; 53: 1118. Good vitamin D levels are another favorable predictive factor in antiviral response to Hep C along with IL28B.
  • -NEJM 2010; 364: 248-254. Vitamin D insufficiency. Levels between 20-30 may be OK -not enough evidence to determine conclusively whether this level is detrimental
  • -J Pediatr 2010; 156: 948. High rate among african americans with asthma, 86%. n=63.
  • -Pediatrics 2009; 124:e362. n=6275. 9% of pediatric patients vit D deficient & 61% were insufficient.
  • -Pediatrics 2009; 124:e371. n=3577. low 25OH-D levels inversely assoc with SBP/metabolic syndrome.
  • -NEJM 2009; 360: 398. case report of rickets
  • -J Pediatr 2003; 143: 422 & 434
  • -Pediatrics 2003; 111: 908. 200 IU Vit D recommended for all breastfed infants.
  • -J Pediatr 2000;137: 153 & 143.. Nutritional rickets–primarily in blacks; rec vitamin D 400 IU per day.

Why are we seeing so many more cases

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In this month’s Gastroenterology, two articles offer some insight into this question for two separate problems.

With regard to inflammatory bowel disease, (IBD) –both Crohn’s disease and UC –there is an increasing prevalence and incidence worldwide (Gastroenterology 2012; 142: 46-54). This article identified 8444 previous citations and then identified 262 studies with relevant data.  Overall, the highest incidence and prevalence of these disorders occurs in Europe and North America.  In North America, Canada has the highest prevalence with 0.6% of the population having IBD.

After going through the statistics, the authors offer some discussion on why IBD is increasing.  In the developing parts of the world, some of the increase is due to the ability to detect and differentiate these disorders due to improving access to medical care/colonoscopy.  In the areas of the world with the highest incidence/prevalence, environmental risk factors are playing an important role.  Potential factors include microbial exposures, sanitation, lifestyle behaviors, medications, and pollution.  These factors are supported by other epidemiological studies which show that individuals who move from low prevalence areas to higher ones are at increased risk for IBD, especially among first generation children (Gut 2008; 57: 1185-91).  Furthermore, in low prevalence regions, IBD is increasing with more industrialization (Chin J Dig Dis 2005; 6: 175-81, Indian J Gastroenterol 2005; 24: 23-24.)  Exact mechanisms are poorly understood; however, even in the U.S. it is recognized that rural/farm exposure at a young age reduces the likelihood of developing IBD at a later age (Pediatrics 2007; 120: 354).

Celiac disease, likewise, has seen an increase in prevalence.  With celiac disease, the proliferation of widely available and more accurate serology has been crucial in the identification of more patients.  However, like IBD, there is likely a role for changing microbial environment contributing to an increasing case burden.  Recently, reports have shown that the risk of celiac disease can be influenced at birth (Gastroenterology 2012; 142: 39-45).  Although the absolute risk was modest, there was an increased risk demonstrated with elective but not emergent cesarean delivery among a large nationwide case-control study from Sweden.  Among the cohort of 11,749 offspring with biopsy-proven celiac (with matched control group of 53,887), elective cesarean delivery resulted in an odds ratio of 1.15 (confidence intervals 1.04-1.26).  This study confirmed other studies which have shown an increased risk with cesarean delivery (Pediatrics 2010; 125: e1433-e1440).  Some of the strengths of this Swedish study, included the fact that the deliveries were separated based on elective or emergency cesarean delivery and were controlled for whether the mother had celiac disease.  (Pregnant women with celiac disease have an increased risk of cesarean delivery.)  The authors speculate that the reason why elective cesarean deliveries increase the risk of celiac disease is that microbial exposures at birth likely influences perinatal colonization –>affects intestinal immune response and mucosal barrier function. Offspring of women with emergency cesarean delivery would be more likely to be exposed to bacteria from the birth canal and no significant increase risk of celiac disease could be identified in this group.

Thus how we are born and where we live make a big impact on the likelihood of developing these GI disorders.

Additional References:

  • -Gut 2011; 60: 49-54. n=577,627 Danish children. Use of antibiotics associated with increase risk of Crohn’s disease (but not UC), especially at younger ages (3-11month of age, & 2-3yrs of age). Each course increased risk by 18%. In children with >7 courses, relative risk was 7.3. especially penicillins.
  • -NEJM 2011; 364: 701, 769. Living on a farm decreases risk of childhood asthma.
  • -Nature 2011; 476: 393. ‘Stop killing beneficial bacteria.’  For example, killing H pylori likely increases risk of esophageal adenocarcinoma
  • -Gastroenterology 2011; 141: 28, 208. GM-CSF receptor (CD116) defective expression & function in 85% of IBD pts. n=52.
  • -Gastroenterology 2010; 139: 1816, 1844. Microbiome & affect on IBD vs mucosal homeostasis
  • -J Pediatr 2010; 157: 240. Microbiota in pediatric IBD -increased E coli and decreased F praunsitzil in IBD pts.
  • -J Pediatr 2009; 155: 781. early child care exposures lessens risk for asthma.
  • -IBD 2008; 14: 575.  Role of E coli in Crohn’s
  • -Lab Invest 2007; 87: 1042-1054. Role of E coli in Crohn’s
  • -Pediatrics 2007; 120: 354. Crohn’s less common after repeated exposure to farm animals in 1st year of life.

More practical information and links to other websites can be found at http://www.gicareforkids.com.

Good News for Celiac Disease

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With the discovery of precise serologies to identify celiac disease, the likelihood of complications of celiac disease has been changing.  In addition, the presentation of celiac disease is different now.  Instead of seeing children with malabsorption and abdominal distention, many children and adults are identified with mild or no symptoms.  Also, the risk of severe complications including malignancy and autoimmune disease has been reevaluated based on larger cohorts.  Twenty years ago, the risk of these complications did serve as a motivator for continuation of a gluten free diet (GFD).   While a GFD remains important, these risks are much lower than previously reported.  The most recent article to support this contention is the following:

Clinical Gastroenterology and Hepatology 2012; 10: 30-36.  This study examined ~45,000 patients with either celiac disease (villous atrophy, Marsh score of 3), duodenal inflammation (Marsh 1 or 2), or latent celiac disease (normal mucosa & positive serology).  After the first year, there was no significant increase risk for GI cancers.  During the first year, cancers that were identified may not have been causally-related to celiac disease but due to coincident detection.

This article due to its large cohort is very useful, but other articles have come to different conclusions.  Irregardless, there are still compelling reasons to continue a GFD.  Many individuals feel better on a GFD & did not recognize prior symptoms.  Maintaining this diet probably lowers the risk of developing certain autoimmune conditions and definitely improves bone health.

Other recent &/or related articles:

–Gastroenterology 2010; 139: 763. Mortality NOT worsened in undiagnosed celiac disease (identified by review of serology) in Olmstead County, though bone density decreased. n=129 of 16,847. (?milder cases undiagnosed)
–J Pediatrics 2010; 157: 373, 353. Even patients without villous atrophy & positive serology, benefited from GFD with regard to GI symptoms and serological markers.
–JAMA 2009; 302: 1171-78. n=29,096. Mortalitiy increased in celiac disease: 35% for latent, 72% for inflammation, 39% for celiac dz.

–Clin Gastro & Hep 2008; 6: 753.  Incidence of autoimmune diseases less in those celiac patients who were compliant with GFD. n=178.

–Gastroenterology 2002; 123; 1428-1435. n=12,000.  Risk for cancer 1.3 odds ratio (lower than in previous studies).