Category Archives: Pediatric Gastroenterology Liver Disease

Sarcopenia, fatigue, and nutrition in chronic liver disease

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Several articles from a recent Clinical Gastroenterology and Hepatology have addressed nutritional aspects of chronic liver disease.

1. Sarcopenia?  This term refers to generalized loss of skeletal muscle.  It does not equate to malnutrition though there is significant overlap.  (Clinical Gastroenterology and Hepatology 2012; 10: 166-73 & editorial 100).  In this study, 112 adults with cirrhosis had CT scans which examined skeletal muscle at the L3 level; 40% had sarcopenia. Sarcopenia was independently associated with mortality and was not reflected in MELD score.  Patients had increased risk of death from sepsis and liver failure (HR 2.18).  Thus, sarcopenia joins hyponatremia, refractory ascites, hepatic encephalopathy as additional factors which add prognostic information to MELD score.

2. Fatigue in cirrhosis. (Clinical Gastroenterology and Hepatology 2012; 10: 174-81 & editorial 103).  Fatigue is common in cirrhosis and is multifactorial.  In this prospective study, 108 patients were evaluated with a fatigue impact scale. Fatigue improved after liver transplantation. Fatigue can be peripheral due to muscle weakness and dysfunction. And, fatigue can be central due to difficulty performing physical and mental activities.  Central fatigue is associated with an increased perceived effort for tasks and often related to depression; this type of fatigue is much more common with cirrhosis.  Although improved, fatigue often does not completely resolve with liver transplantation.

3. Nutrition recommendations. (Clinical Gastroenterology and Hepatology 2012; 10: 117-25).  A summary of nutrition recommendations in adults  with chronic liver disease is given in this article.  One common misconception is protein restriction.  This is not beneficial.  Protein recommendations are for adult patients with cirrhosis to receive 1-1.5 g/kg/day.  This amount is higher than for healthy individuals.  Protein restriction leads to protein catabolism, muscle breakdown and increases the likelihood of hepatic encephalopathy.

Additional references:

  • -Age Ageing 2010; 39: 412-23.  Sarcopenia consensus definitions in older people.
  • -Gastroenterology 2008; 134: 1741. Evaluation and management of end-stage liver disease in children. Recs vaccines due to functional asplenia/portal hypertension at age 2 for Neisseria (MCV4) or polysaccharide (MPSV4); at 6 weeks of age for pneumococcal conjugate vaccines. Reviews nutrition, varices, ascites, encephalopathy….
  • -Liver Transplant 2008; 14: 585-591. Poor growth often due to growth hormone resistance. Chronic malnutrition is a factor, but children with advanced liver dz may not grow despite adequate calories. Recs: for chronic liver dz: 130-150% of RDA based on ideal body wt; in infants 120-150 cal/kg/day. Increase MCT either thru formula or supplemental MCT.
  • -Liver Transplant 2006; 12: 1310. Review article on nutrition for OLTx patient.
  • -JPGN 2000; 30: 361. nutrition review and chronic liver disease.

Methotrexate and liver toxicity

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There are drawbacks with all of the therapies for inflammatory bowel disease; however, usually the inflammatory bowel disease is worse than any of the medications. One of the therapies that  has started to see increased usage in Crohn’s disease is methotrexate (MTX), both as an alternative to thiopurines and as an adjunct to Remicade.  There are a number of side effects; a patient handout is available at the following: http://www.ccdhc.org/diseases/MethotrexateLetter.pdf

One of the concerns with MTX has been liver toxicity, in part because of descriptions in the rheumatology literature with long-term usage.  In Crohn’s disease patients, it appears that the risk is much lower (Inflamm Bowel Dis 2012; 18: 359-67).  This study found 13 trials for their meta-analysis.  A total of 632 participants were included: 373 MTX, 131 thiopurines, 128 placebo.  In the MTX group, elevated hepatic aminotransferases occurred in 1.4 per 100 person-months.  The rate of elevation more than 2-fold the upper limit of normal was 0.9 per 100 person-months.  Thus, of the initial 373 patients, 39 had an abnormal aminotransferase.  26 of these 39 had spontaneous resolution, 3 improved with dose reduction & 10 withdrew from MTX treatment (0.8 per 100 person-months).  Seven of these withdrawals were from one of the earlier studies (Feagan et al. NEJM 1995; 332: 292-97). Besides the low likelihood of needing to stop MTX due to liver toxicity, the other observation was that the liver toxicity was mostly dependent on the dose; therefore, dosage reduction would likely be effective if needed.

In my practice, when considering MTX treatment, I usually recommend the following:

  • Monitoring: Baseline: CXR, CBC, Amylase, Renal, LFTs, urine HCG & then Q2-4 weeks initially, then Q3months
  • Give Folate during therapy.
  • Use zofran if needed for nausea
  • Avoid NSAIDs during treatment due to renal toxicity
  • Contraindicated with pregnancy (MTX=teratogen) -females should see gynecology
  • Families warned in writing that this medication is given once a week; more often can be deadly

Additional references:

  • -IBD 2011; 17: 2521. ~25% remission at 1yr, 16% at 2yrs.. n=93.
  • -JPGN 2011;53: 389. n=64. Supports use of zofran for 1st few months to prevent nausea.
  • -JPGN 2010; 51: 714. Use of MTX after thiopurines. n=27. 48% in remission at 6 months.
  • -JPGN 2009; 48: 526. Use in pediatric CD, n=25. 64% response
  • -JPGN 2009; 48 suppl 2: S111. MTX may be effective for UC.
  • -NEJM 2008; 359: 2790. Similar safety of AZA and MTX in vasculitis patients. AZA may be safer.
  • -IBD 2008; 14: 756. MTX in Crohn’s. n=39. 71% remission (20% steroid-free).
  • -J Clin Pharm & Therapeutics 2007; 32: 327-31.
  • -Am J Health Syst Pharm 2004; 61: 1380-84. review of MTX errors -FDA reported
  • http://www.npsa.nhs.uk/patientsafety/alerrts-and-directives/alerts/oral-methotrexate/
  • -Am J Gastro 2007; 102: 2804-2812. n=60 pediatric patients. ~42% in remission with MTX & ~50% improved. 13% (8) had to stop due to increased LFTs or sepsis.
  • -IBD 2006; 12: 1053. n=61. MTX for AZA nonresponders/breakthroughs: 80% with improvement/ 45% with long-term response; 10% discontinued due to side effects. Steroids stopped in 36.
  • -JPGN 2005; 40: 445. Oral MTX works as well as IM/SC.
  • -JPGN 2003; 37: 392 (194A) 0.4 mg/kg/weekly. 91% response at 2 mo, most still needed remicade
  • -Gastroenterology 2003; 124: suppl 1, A-41 (305) 11/12 responded – able to stop remicade
  • -Feagan et al. NEJM 1995; 332: 292-97.
  • -J Pediatr 1999: 134: 47. Hepatotoxic risk factors. (enzymes & obesity). Consider bx if serial enzymes increased >40% of the time over 1 year
  • -Arthritis Rheum 1997; 40: 2226.

What to make of FODMAPs

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Consumption of FODMAPs (fermentable oligosaccharides, disaccharides, monosaccharides and polyols) may trigger irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) symptoms.  Some research indicates that a diet low on FODMAPs may be beneficial (J Hum Nutr Diet 2011; 24: 487-95).  This study tried to assess whether a low FODMAPs diet which had been reported from a single center in Australia would be effective for IBS.

In this study, consecutive patients with IBS were divided into two groups.  39 received standard dietary advice based on UK National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence (NICE) guidelines.  43 patients were placed on a low FODMAP dietary advice.  Patients were selected into each group consecutively (not randomized). This study reported a 76% satisfactory symptom response in the FODMAP group vs a 54% response in the control group (p=0.038).  Overall, 86% of FODMAP group had improved composite score compared with 49% of standard treatment group. Specific improvements were noted in bloating, abdominal pain, and flatulence.  The average age of the study population was 38 and 71% were females.  60% had diarrhea-predominant IBS.

NICE guidelines for IBS:

  • Healthy eating principles: regular eating, taking time to eat
  • Limit high fat foods and fizzy drinks
  • Limit insoluble fiber for diarrhea and gradually increase for constipation
  • Limit sugar-free sweets and foods with sorbitol
  • Limit fruit to 3 portions/day
  • Avoiding ‘resistant’ starch may be useful (eg. sweetcorn, green bananas, part-baked and reheated bread)
  • Addition of oats and linseeds may be helpful

Low FODMAP diet

  • Reduce high fructan foods (eg wheat and onion)
  • Reduction in high galactooligosaccharide foods (eg chickpeas, lentils)
  • Reduce high polyol foods and polyol-sweetened sources.  Replace with suitable fruits and vegetables
  • In patients with lactose malabsorption, reduce high lactose foods (eg milk, yoghurt) to smaller volumes or substitute lactose-free products
  • In those with fructose malabsorption, decrease excess fructose

Of course, reading the author’s description of a low FODMAP diet is confusing.  Translation:

Include more bananas, blueberries, lettuce, potatoes, gluten-free breads or cereals, rice, oats, hard cheeses, lactose-free milk, sugar, molasses, and artificial sweeteners that do not end in “ol.”

Avoid/eliminate apples, pears, canned fruits in natural juices, high-fructose corn syrup, cows’ milk (due to lactose), soft cheese, broccoli, cabbage, pasta, bread, baked goods from wheat/rye, mushrooms, and sweeteners like sorbitol or others that end in “ol.”

Since this diet has attracted more widespread attention, basic familiarity is important for all physicians who treat IBS.  A useful resource to explain this diet is the Wall Street Journal:

http://online.wsj.com/article/SB10001424052970204554204577023880581820726.html

This link has a good table illustrating the recommended dietary choices.

Whether FODMAPs will be superior to other dietary advice for IBS is still uncertain.  Though, given the limited number of effective treatments for IBS, this small study is a promising development.

Additional references:

  • -Clin Gastro & Hep 2009; 7: 706. n=17. 13 responded to very low carb diet (<20g/day)
  • -Clin Gastro & Hep 2008; 6: 765. Dietary triggers for IBS include fructose/fructans: honey, high fructose corn syrup, wheat, fruits.
  • -IBD 2006; 13: 91. Dietary guidelines for IBS.
  • -Clin Gastro Hepatol 2005; 10: 992-996. Obesity increases IBS symptoms; diet with low fat, high fruit/fiber have fewer symptoms
  • -Gut 2004; 53: 1459-1464. Food elimination based on IgG antibodies. Patients did better on diet with implicated foods than with control diet (diet was blinded/randomized).
  • -Am J Gastro 2011; 106: 508-514. randomized, double-blind trial showing efficacy of GFD for non-celiacs.  60% vs 32& placebo response.
  • -Nutr Clin Pract. 2011;26:294-299.  GFD for non-celiacs.
  • -Gastroenterology 2011; 141: 1941./Am J Gastro 2011; 106: 915.  Exercise improves IBS symptoms.

Big gift, how much risk

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When an individual is considering donating a part of their liver, it is no exaggeration to say this may be lifesaving.  In pediatric hepatology, live donor liver transplantation (LDLT) is frequently considered by desperate parents. The risk of this gift has been poorly understood due to a lack of a LDLT registry.

This month (Gastroenterology 2012; 142: 273-80) better data has emerged.  By combining information from UNOS and the Social Security Death Master File, the authors were able to follow 4111 LDLTs (donors) in the U.S. between 1994 and 2011. Key findings:

  • Seven early deaths (1.7 per 1000)
  • Death rate was not affected by portion of liver donated
  • 11 early catastrophic events: early deaths or acute liver failure (2.9 per 1000)
  • Long term mortality was similar to that for live kidney donors and NHANES III healthy participants over 11 year followup (1.2%, 1.2%, and 1.4% respectively)

Although these data are somewhat reassuring, there is a definite increase in mortality and morbidity among LDLT donors.  An editorial in the same issue (pg 207-09) states that LDLT donors are probably healthier than the general population; up to 65% of donor candidates are rejected during the evaluation process.  As such, when survival at 11 years is similar to NHANES III participants, this indicates the likelihood of a detrimental effect on long-term health. Besides early perioperative deaths, suicide and drug overdoses among donors was significant (n=4) and 4% of donors may develop psychiatric problems.  Specific complications include biliary leaks (9%), bacterial infections (12%), and incisional hernias (6%).

At the same time, the direct benefit of this gift including the potential of saving a loved one cannot be measured.  In addition to avoid a protracted uncertain period on the waiting list for a recipient, a donated liver may help another unidentified individual obtain a deceased donated liver.

Additional references:

-Gastroenterology 2008; 135: 468. Donor morbidity/mortality. n=393. 62% without complications. 3 deaths and significant morbidity.
-Liver Transplantation 2006; 12: 499. Review.
-DDW 2003, T Tran, n=56. only 27% of prospective donors c nl histology.
-NEJM 2003; 348: 818-25. (L & R-Lobe) complications from donating in 449. 6% biliary complications, reop in 4.5%, death 0.2%
-NEJM 2002; 346: 1074-1082. & 1038. R lobe Tx.
-J Pediatr 1999; 134: 280.  Results of LDLT: 92% 1 yr survival; higher biliary complications 19-34%.

MicroRNAs and biliary atresia

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The human genome may encode over 1000 microRNAs (miRNAs), which may target about 60% of mammalian genes and are abundant in many human cell types. MicroRNAs are a class of short (18-23 nucleotide) noncoding RNA molecules which act as a negative regulator of target mRNA stability and translation.  This month the interaction of miRNAs with biliary atresia is examined (JPGN 2012; 54: 186-92).

Using a mouse model, the authors identify miRNA-29 overexpression associated with the downregulation of two mRNA targets related to biliary atresia pathogenesis.  The research has several limitations, including the use of adult mice.  The reason why I highlight this study is that miRNAs are helping elucidate basic disease mechanisms and identifying new therapeutic targets.  Some of these same investigators published “Circulating microRNA is a biomarker of pediatric Crohn disease.” (JPGN: 2011;  53(1): 26-33).  In this study, 11 CD-associated serum miRNA were identified with encouraging diagnostic potential.  These specific miRNAs were found in Crohn disease patients but not in controls and patients with celiac disease.  The sensitivity for Crohn disease was over 80%.

Despite this intriguing research, it not clear whether or when miRNAs will have an important role in bedside management.

Additional references:

Help with hepcidin

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Over the past several years, the mechanisms involved in iron overload have been carefully examined and the genetic basis for most of these disorders is now understood.  Several review articles on these disorders have been published; the most recent with excellent diagrams is in last week’s NEJM (NEJM 2012; 366: 348-59 & NEJM 2012; 366: 376-77). Although the process is quite complicated, the most important aspect regarding iron homeostasis is a feedback loop involving hepcidin-ferroportin.  Hepcidin functions as a ‘hypoferremia hormone.’  It down regulates ferroportin release of iron into the circulation.  Hepcidin is also an acute-phase protein and inflammation affects its function.

Hepcidin levels fluctuate in response to the body’s iron needs: more hepcidin causes less iron absorption & less hepcidin causes more iron absorption.

  • Iron balance disorders can usually be attributed to altered hepcidin production.
  • Anemia of chronic disease, though multifactorial, is mostly due to increased hepcidin production in response to inflammation.
  • Hemochromatosis results from genetic mutations causing lack of normal hepcidin production.  The severity of these disorders correlates with hepcidin levels.
  • Hepcidin agonists could be used to treat hemochromatosis and other iron overload conditions (eg. thalassemia with transfusion therapy).  For hemochromatosis, phlebotomy will be less expensive.
  • Hepcidin antagonists could treat anemia of chronic disease

Additional references:

  • -Hepatology 2011; 54: 328.  Review.  Guidelines.
  • -Hepatology 2010; 52: 925.  HFE homozygotes, n=31,192 w low risk of clinical symptoms if ferritin <1000.
  • -Gastroenterology 2010; 139: 393. Review –pathogenesis/dx/Rx
  • -Hepatology 2009; 50: 94.  C282Y/H63D compound heterozygotes (n=180) are at low risk for hemochromatosis-related morbidity compared with control group.
  • -Hepatology 2008; 48: 991.  Review.
  • -Hepatology 2007; 46: 960, 1071.  Review of clinical phenotypes.  Of C282Y homozygotes, only 1-2% develop HCC, 6% cirrhosis, 25% liver fibrosis, 38% Fe overload, 61-75% develop raised serum iron indices.
  • -Hepatology 2007; 46: 1291. Review of hemochromatosis
  • -Hepatology 2007; 45: 253. Review of iron metabolism
  • -NEJM 2004; 350: 2383. Review.  Several genetic mutations associated with clinical phenotype.  type 1: Classic HFE, types 2A & 2B: (Juvenile type)  HJV & HAMP (gene products hemojuvelin & hepcidin), type 3:TFR2 (transferrin receptor 2), and type 4:SLC40A1
  • -NEJM 2005; 352: 1011. Algorithm.  If transferrin saturation <16%, check ferritin.  If ferritin less than 30, Fe-deficiency; if >100, anemia of chronic disease.  If 30-100, check soluble transferrin receptor (level of sTranReceptor/log ferritin less than 1 is c/w anemia of chronic disease whereas when this ratio is greater than 2, c/w combined Fe-def anemia and anemia of chronic disease).  Hepcidin is produced by hepatocytes and regulates iron homeostasis.  Hepcidin interacts with ferroportin, an iron export protein on enterocytes (& other cells), & facilitates internalization and degradation of ferroportin.  It may lead to decreased dietary iron absorption and to retention of iron body stores.  Hepcidin expression can be up-regulated by high iron levels or during acute phase inflammatory responses (thus can contribute to anemia of chronic disease).  Hereditary hemochromatosis associated with low hepcidin levels in the face of increased iron body stores.  Several genes can affect hepcidin loss of function, including HFE, hemojuvelin (HJV), and transferrin receptor 2 (TFR2).
  • -Gastroenterology 1996; 110: 1107.  Sentinel article discussing long-term survival in hemochromatosis and role of iron.

More on ethanol locks

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In a post earlier this week (Four advances for intestinal failure), ethanol locks were discussed.  More on information this subject (Pediatrics 2012: 129: 318-29) comes in a meta-analysis.  These authors identified 4 retrospective studies in pediatric IF populations.  Ethanol locks reduced infections by 81% and line replacements by 72%.  The studies in this meta-analysis overlapped with the six studies cited in the previous post.  Adverse events were rare and included thrombotic events.

Additional reference:

  • -JPEN 2012; 36: 36S-42S

Blood is not enough

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…to resolve the problems of sickle cell anemia.  The effects of transfusions for sickle cell patients’ hepatobiliary function are poorly understood.  By lowering the level of hemoglobin S and reducing sickling, can this lead to improvement in organs damaged by sinusoidal congestion and infarction?  Well probably not (J Pediatr 2012; 160: 281-85).

Strokes are known to occur in 5-10% of sickle cell patients by 20 years of age and if untreated, >50% have recurrence.  This has led to transfusion programs.  The ‘Stroke with Transfusions Changing to Hydrdoxyurea’ (SWiTCH) study is a multi-center randomized trial trying to determine how current treatment (transfusions and chelation) compares with hydroxyurea/phlebotomy for preventing stroke and managing iron overload.  As part of this study, a baseline assessment with ultrasound showed widespread problems -despite an average of 7 years of transfusions.  In this cohort of 149 patients, the following findings were identified:

  • Spleen volumes were increased in more than 1/3rd of patients leading to hypersplenism (low platelet counts). 12 subjects had nonvisible spleens due to autoinfarction.
  • Nephromegaly was present.  This finding is known to occur with sickle cell disease and is a marker of glomerular hyperfiltration.
  • Hepatobiliary disease was nearly ubiquitous.  37 of 148 had previous cholecytectomy; of the remaining, 46 of 111 (41%) had gallstones and 14% had gallbladder sludge.  Liver lengths were significantly longer as well.

Conclusions: Transfusion therapy was insufficient to reverse or prevent organ damage in children with sickle cell anemia.  An important limitation– the severity of the underlying prevalence of organ dysfunction prior to initiation of transfusion therapy was not known.

Additional references:

  • -Blood 2011; 117: 772-9.  Silent cerebral infarcts occur despite regular blood transfusions.
  • -Clin Gastro & Hep 2007; 5: 1469.  Reviews types of sickle cell associated liver disease.
  • -Pediatric Hematology and Oncology.  2006 Mar;23(2): 95-102(8).  Sickle cell intrahepatic cholestasis (SCIC), which is related to intrahepatic sinusoidal RBC sickling (due to relative hypoxia) and can be associated with progressive hepatomegaly, mild transaminitis, extreme hyperbilirubinemia
  • -JPGN 2004; 39: 200.  Review of sickle cell hepatic crisis.  Cholestasis resolves over 3 months.  Acute crisis treated with hyperhydration & transfusion. Cohort of 350; 6 developed hepatic crisis.
  • -J Pediatr 2001; 139: 785-789 & 790-796.  Transfusions and hydroxyurea for SS dz.

The heart connection

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Cardiac changes with biliary atresia (BA) are surprisingly common– Gastoenterology 2011; 141: 1264-72.  In this study, 48 patients with BA, listed for liver transplantation, underwent echocardiography between 2004-2010.  The median age was 8 months.  Significant increases in left ventricle wall thickness (23% increase) and mass (51% increase) were noted; in addition, functional changes were noted as there was an increase in LV shortening fraction (8% increase).  Features of ‘cirrhotic cardiomyopathy’ were evident in 72% of infants (29/40).  The authors conclude that these heart changes likely contribute to prolongation of posttransplant hospitalization.

Additional References:

  • -J Am Coll Cardiol 2010; 56: 539-49
  • -J Hepatol 2010; 53: 179-90.

Hepatic ciliopathies

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As our understanding of pathophysiology improves, frequently this results in reclassification of diseases.  Perhaps the best example in pediatric hepatology is gestational alloimune liver disease/congenital alloimmune hepatitis, formerly called neonatal hemochromatosis  (see previous post).  Hepatic ciliopathies are less commonly discussed and thus far have not resulted in abandoning previous nomenclature. These hepatic ciliopathies are related to fibrocystic disease proteins which localize to the primary cilia.  Ductal plate malformation is the main pathology that underlies the liver disease in ciliopathies.  The characteristics of one of these disorders, congenital hepatic fibrosis (CHF) in autosomal dominant polycystic kidney diseae (PKD) involving 19 patients is described in this month’s JPGN (JPGN 2012: 54: 83-89).  Portal hypertension was the main manifestation.  “Hepatocellular function was preserved and liver enzymes were largely normal.”  In patients with AD-PKD-CHF, this was  due to PKD1 mutations with probable contributions from modifier genes.  One interesting finding was that in the identified families, the parents who were affected by polycystic kidney disease did not have CHF.

Although this study demonstrates that CHF and portal hypertension can occur with AD-PKD, CHF and portal hypertension are a characteristic finding with AR-PKD.  With AD-PKD, the liver cysts originate from biliary microhamartomas (von Meyenburg complexes) and are not in continuity with the biliary tree.  In contrast, patients with AR-PKD have cystic dilatations of the biliary system; this combination is called Caroli syndrome.  Due to these differences, unlike AR-PKD, AD-PKD does not typically result in portal hypertension.

Additional references on congenital hepatic fibrosis:

  • -Hepatology 2010; 52: 2223. Review. Medical/Surgical & Tx options.
  • -Am J Med Genet C Semin Med Genet 2009; 151C: 296-406.  Liver disease and kidney disease in ciliopathies.
  • -NEJM 2008; 359: 1477.  Review of autosomal dominant polycystic kidney disease.  ~80% develop liver cysts.
  • -NEJM 2007; 356: 1560. Nice pic of resected liver with polycystic liver disease in 51 year old.
  • -J Pediatr 2006; 149: 159. Review and NIH protocol for enrolling patients. Clinical GI issues: recurrent cholangitis, portal htn, cholelithiasis, and cholangiocarcinoma.
  • -Pediatr Transplantation 2005; 9: 634-9.
  • -Hepatology 2004; 40: 774-82.
  • -Surg Endosc 2005; 19: 130-32.
  • -Gastorenterol Clin N Am; 2003; 32: 857-75. “Heritable disorders of the bile ducts”