Category Archives: Pediatric Gastroenterology Intestinal Disorder

New Mutations: Achalasia, Pseudoobstruction, & IBD

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The ability to use whole exome sequencing and widely available genetic testing is yielding a plethora of new information regarding the genetic causes for many conditions.  In gastroenterology, here are a few recent examples:

  • Shteyer E, et al. “Truncating mutation in the nitric oxide synthase 1 gene is associated with infantile achalasia.” Gastroenterology. 2015 Mar;148(3):533-536.e4. doi: 10.1053/j.gastro.2014.11.044. Epub 2014 Dec 3.
  • Bonora E, et al. “Mutations in RAD21 Disrupt Regulation of APOB in Patients with Chronic Intestinal Pseudo-Obstruction” Gastroenterology 2015; 148: 771-82.  Genetic defect in RAD21 identified in Turkish family with consanguinity; in addition, APOB48 serum levels was identified as a potential biomarker for intestinal pseudo-obstruction and intestinal ganglion numbers.
  • Alonso A, et al. “Identification of Loci for Crohn’s Disease Phenotypes Using a Genome-Wide Association Study.” Gastroenterology 2015; 148: 794-805. Variants in MAG11, CLCA2, 2q24.1, LY75 identified as associated with Crohn’s phenotypes.

For me, I am not sure whether these findings should be considered mundane or amazing. On the one hand, each of the findings helps understand these diseases; yet, I came across all of these articles in the span of 24 hours and from the same journal.

Hard-to-Treat Shigella Infections

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From the CDC (4/2/15): Multidrug-resistant Shigellosis Spreading in the U.S.

International travelers are bringing a multidrug-resistant intestinal illness to the United States and spreading it to others who have not traveled, according to a report released today by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Shigella sonnei bacteria resistant to the antibiotic ciprofloxacin sickened 243 people in 32 states and Puerto Rico between May 2014 and February 2015…

In the United States, most Shigella is already resistant to the antibiotics ampicillin and trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole. Globally, Shigella resistance to Cipro is increasing…

Until recently, Cipro resistance has occurred in just 2 percent of Shigella infections tested in the United States, but was found in 90 percent of samples tested in the recent clusters.

Because Cipro-resistant Shigella is spreading, CDC recommends doctors use lab tests to determine which antibiotics will effectively treat shigellosis. Doctors and patients should consider carefully whether an infection requires antibiotics at all…

For more information on Shigella, please visit: www.cdc.gov/shigella.

Travelers can learn more about food and water precautions to prevent Shigella at: http://wwwnc.cdc.gov/travel/yellowbook/2014/chapter-2-the-pre-travel-consultation/food-and-water-precautions.

To view the full MMWR report, please click here.

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Sandy Springs

Sandy Springs

Brains and Bowels: Kids with IBD Do Fine in School

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A recent study (Singh H, et al. J Pediatr 2015; 166: 1128-33) showed that overall academic performance was not affected for children with inflammatory bowel disease (IBD).

Study characteristics:

University of Manitoba Database IBD population (n=337) was matched by age, sex, and area of residence to 10 randomly selected controls (n=3093).

Key findings:

  • There were no significant differences in the 2 groups in standardized scores or enrollment in grade 12
  • Lower socioeconomic status and diagnosis with a mental health problem (6-month before or after IBD diagnosis) were independent predictors of worse outcomes

Akin to the quote above, I’ve often felt that it is difficult to think clearly when having severe bowel dysfunction.  At the same time, some of our patients accomplish so much despite their physical setbacks.

Bottomline: This study provides reassurance that children with IBD should be able to complete their course work.

Chicago

Chicago

 

Tackling Crohn’s Perianal Fistulizing Disease

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I am fortunate to work closely with several well-qualified pediatric surgeons and colorectal surgeons.  When faced with perianal fistulas, I have discussions with them to help optimize therapy.  Understanding exactly what and why the surgeons do what they do has not always been clear to me.  Four recent articles provide guidelines for the management of Crohn’s perianal disease.  The color figures in the articles make understanding what is done pretty obvious.

  • Schwartz DA et al. Inflamm Bowel Dis 2015; 21: 723-30. Overview.
  • Ong EMW et al. Inflamm Bowel Dis 2015; 21: 731-36. Focus on imaging.
  • Schwartz DA et al. Inflamm Bowel Dis 2015; 21: 737-52. Critical evaluation of Medications
  • Fichera A, Zoccali M. Inflamm Bowel Dis 2015; 21: 753-58. Critical evaluation of Surgical Approaches

The first guideline provides a summary statement combining aspects of both medical and surgical management.  Basic anatomy and classification are reviewed (a color figure similar to reproduction below helps describe the types of fistula).

Simple vs Complex fistula is reviewed.  A “Simple fistula is a superficial, intersphincteric or low transspincteric fistula that has only 1 opening and is not associated with an abscess and/or does not connect to an adjacent structure such as the vagina or bladder.”  All others are complex fistulas.  The MRI classifcation is also reviewed (Figure 5).

Other points:

  • For fistulizing disease, top-down cotherapy (anti-TNF/immunomodulator) therapy is recommended.  Antibiotics are recommended in the short term.
  • Placement of a draining seton (for complex fistulas) helps to maintain fistula drainage until the track becomes inactive on medical treatment.
  • A treatment algorithm (Figure 7) notes that endoscopy, imaging (EUS or MRI) and exam under anesthesia are key first steps.  Decision tree then divides based on whether there is rectal inflammation, and whether fistula is simple or complex.
  • Surgical options include fistulotomy, fibrin glue, fistula plug, seton placement, advancement flaps and proctectomy.

Bottomline: These set of articles should serve as a useful reference when managing perianal disease.

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Keeping Up with Clostridium Difficile

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It is difficult to keep up with all of the relevant publications regarding Clostridium difficile–there are so many.  This likely reflects its emergence as a frequent and important pathogen.

Recent references:

  1. Sandberg KC et al. “Disproportionate Rise in Clostridium difficile Associated Hospitalizations Among US Youth with Inflammatory Bowel Disease, 19978-2011.” JPGN 2015; 60: 486-92 (editorial 421-22).
  2. Leffler DA, Lamont JT. NEJM 2015; 372: 1539-48.

In the first study, the researchers note that there has been a 5-fold increase in inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) hospitalizations with concomitant Clostridium difficile infection (CDI).  Whereas, the hospitalization without CDI increased 2-fold.  Associated with this 5-fold increase in hospitalizations, there were increased costs and longer length of stays.  Interestingly, IBD patients with CDI had a  lower likelihood (OR 0.31) of colectomy in this study. This epidemiology yields more questions than answers.  Certainly, a significant fraction of this increase is due to the use of more sensitive PCR-based assay. In addition, many of these patients may not be symptomatic due to CDI; it can be difficult to determine if IBD symptoms are due to IBD or due to CDI. Even treatment with antibiotics like vancomycin does not fully differentiate as the response could be nonspecific.

In the second review, severe useful points were made.

Risk factors:

  • Antibiotics –this remains most important risk factor
  • Older age (especially if >65 years)
  • Possible acid suppression -not confirmed in some studies when adjusting for coexisting conditions
  • Inflammatory bowel disease
  • Immunosuppression
  • Chronic kidney disease

Diagnosis:

  • Use of DNA assays has allowed for detection of “low levels of toxigenic organisms of uncertain clinical significance.”  Thus, these assays may detect clinically-insignificant infections.
  • Endoscopy is rarely needed, but sometimes helpful in ovelapping conditions like coexistent CDI from IBD
  • Negative PCR assay has a negative predictive value of “more than 95% in average-risk groups.”
  • Testing and treating persons with solid stools is not recommended

Prevention:

  • Probiotics “have an uncertain effect on the prevention of C difficile infection, and their routine use for the prevention or treatment of active infection is not recommended.”  The authors note that initial favorable studies of antibiotic-associated diarrhea were underpowered and that more recent studies have shown mixed results.  In studies of patients with unusually high rates of CDI, probiotics were shown to confer benefit.

Treatment:

  • Metronidazole and vancomycin remain 1st line treatments.
  • Fidaxomicin use has been limited due to expense, but has been shown to reduce recurrence of CDI in those who do not have the b1/NAP1/027 strain.
  • Alternative antimicrobials, including rifaximin, nitazoxanide and others, are “not recommended except in cases of unacceptable adverse effects.”
  • For recurrent infection, 1st line approach is retreatment with either metronidazole & vancomycin. Second recurrences are often treated with fidaxomicin or tapered vancomycin course.
  • Fecal microbial transplantation –noted to be highly effective and safe as salvage therapy. The precise components that are important are uncertain; however, “the phyla Bactteroidetes and Firmicutes are thought to comprise critical components.”  “More work is neede to understand the possible role for fecal microbial transplantation for primary CDI”

Bottomline: CDI remains an important pathogen and significantly complicates the management of IBD.

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Chronic Pancreatitis in Pediatrics -Descriptive Study

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“Genius is one percent inspiration and ninety-nine percent perspiration.” – Thomas A. Edison

I thought about this saying as I was reading an editorial titled: “Understanding Pediatric Chronic Pancreatitis: Inspiration and Hard Work Required” (Pant C, Sferra TJ. J Pediatr 2015; 166: 798-800). The editorial was reviewing the article “Pediatric Chronic Pancreatitis Is Associated with Genetic Risk Factors and Substantial Disease Burden” (Schwarzenberg SJ et al. J Pediatr 2015; 166: 890-6).

The study comes from the International Study Group of Pediatric Pancreatitis: In Search of a Cure (INSPPIRE) consortium.  None of the findings in the study are particularly surprising; nevertheless, a descriptive study of the patients in the registry who had strictly defined chronic pancreatitis (n=76) is still an important early step in improving our understanding of this dreaded problem.

Chronic pancreatitis required either:

  • Abdominal pain consistent with pancreatic pain with imaging findings suggestive of chronic pancreatic damage
  • Evidence of exocrine or endocrine pancreatic insufficiency and imaging findings suggestive of chronic pancreatic damage
  • Histology (surgical biopsy) findings suggestive of chronic pancreatitis

Key points:

  • Two-thirds of patients with genetic testing had identified genetic mutations: PRSS1 (n=33), SPINK1 (n=14), CFTR (n=11), chymotrypsin C (CTRC) (n=2).  Mutations in more than 1 gene were noted in 9 patients, including 6 of the 11 with CFTR mutations.  Several newer mutations, like calcium-sensing receptor and carboxypeptidase A1, were not evaluated in any of the patients.
  • Pancreas divisum was present in 15 patients; however, 8 of 15 of these patients had an identified genetic mutation as well.
  • Radiographic findings of chronic pancreatitis were most commonly ductal abnormalities and pancreatic atrophy. This is in contrast to adults in which pancreatic calcifications are common.
  • The researchers also document severe disease burden with patients reporting a median of 3 emergency dept visits and 2 hospitalizations in the previous year. In addition, 70% (n=47) had missed 1 day of school in the past month and 34% had missed 3 or more days.
  • Medical treatment (eg. pancreatic enzymes) was ineffective in the majority of patients.
  • 43% had undergone ERCP and two-thirds noted improvement from this intervention
  • Surgical procedures were performed in 39% and were helpful in the majority.  Total pancreatectomy with islet autotransplantation was the most common surgery in this cohort and was helpful in 20 of 21 patients.
  • The authors recommend avoidance of CT scans due to concerns of accumulating excess ionizing radiation exposure.

Take home message: For me, this study helps define the problem.  As a practical matter, it would be helpful to have a genetic panel to check for the lesser frequent mutations if PRSS1, SPINK1, and CFTR are normal.

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What is the Connection between Psychological Stress and Ulcers?

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Briefly noted: “Psychological Stress Increases Risk for Peptic Ulcer, Regardless of Helicobacter pylori Infection, or Use of Nonsteroidal Anti-Inflammatory Drugs” Clin Gastroeenterol Hepatol 2015; 498-506. From an initial sample of 3379 Danish adults with medical data/blood  in 1982-83, 76 subjects developed ulcers in this prospective study. Life stress at baseline increased the risk of subsequent ulcer and was not fully explained by confounding variables, by socioeconomic status or by association with NSAIDs or smoking. Ulcer incidence wa 3.5% in the highest tertile of stress compared with 1.6% in the lowest tertile.

Bottomline: Since the discovery of Helicobacter pylori, the role, if any, of psychological stress in contributing to ulcers has been questioned. This study indicates that stress may play a role in ulcer development or at the very least is a marker of individuals at increased risk.

Wheat Intolerance Syndrome?

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Even though we’ve lived in our house for many years, some of our neighbors refer to our house as the ‘Walden’ house; the Waldens lived here for a long time before we did. Probably when we move, our neighbors will call our present home the “Hochman” house, regardless of who resides there.

I think nomenclature in medicine has a similar reluctance to adopt new terms.  A recent medical progress report (Guandalini S, Polanco I. J Pediatr 2015; 166: 805-10) suggests dropping the term “Nonceliac gluten sensitivity” (NCGS) in favor of “Wheat Intolerance Syndrome.”

It’s probably a good idea and their arguments are sound. Two key points:

  • “There is no proof that gluten is causing NCGS.”
  • It is likely that the majority of patients considered NCGS have not even eliminated celiac disease before instituting a gluten-free diet.

With regard to the first point, the authors note that recent studies have suggested that a “FODMAP” (fermentable oligosaccharides, disaccharides, monosaccharides, and polyols) diet is likely the culprit in many cases of so-called NCGS.  They review a pivotal double-blind study (see related blog post: An Unexpected Twist for “Gluten Sensitivity” | gutsandgrowth) there was no role for gluten “at least in these patients with IBS-like NCGS.”  In addition, other studies have demonstrated a strong role for a placebo/nocebo effect of dietary elimination.  “It is quite conceivable that a portion of patients with NCGS, and arguably a substantial one, fall in this category.”

With regard to the second point, it is not a good idea to initiate a gluten-free diet before excluding the diagnosis of celiac disease (hence the prior term: “nonceliac” gluten sensitivity).  A related comment from the authors is that a “Grade 1 [Marsh] intestinal lesion has traditionally been considered of a very low specificity for celiac disease.”  More testing in this circumstance can help determine if celiac disease is the reason, including checking the levels of ϒδ T-cell receptors in intraepithelial lymphocytes (very specific for celiac disease) and/or detection of IgA anti-tissue transglutaminase antibody deposits in intestinal mucosa.

Other pointers:

  • Genetic testing for HLA-DQ2 and/or HLA-DQ8 genotypes (which are nearly 100% in celiac disease) are present in about 40% of NCGS which does not differ from the general population
  • “Estimating the prevalence of NCGS is impossible.”  Estimates have ranged from 0.6% of the U.S. population to as high as 50% according to some websites.

Bottomline: While “Wheat Intolerance Syndrome” works fine for me, I think the term nonceliac gluten sensitivity is going to be around for a while.  Hopefully, more families and care providers will exclude celiac disease before contemplating this label and consider other foods as potential contributors to the symptomatology.

Related Reference: “Coeliac Disease and Noncoeliac Gluten Sensitivity” Meijer CR, Shamir R, Mearin ML. JPGN 2015; 60: 429-32.  This reference covers much of the same territory.  The Table 1 in this article nicely summarizes the relevant literature/studies from 2008-2014.

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Foreign Bodies in Children -Expert Guidance

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The NASPGHAN Endoscopy Committee has published a very helpful “Management of Ingested Foreign Bodies” Report (Kramer RE et al. JPGN 2015; 60: 562-74).  At the current time, one way to access a PDF of the report is the following CME link on the NASPGHAN website (no login required): Management of Ingested Foreign Bodies -Clinical Report

Some key definitiions from the report.

  • Emergent removal <2 hours from presentation regardless of NPO status
  • Urgent removal <24 hours from presentation following usual NPO guidelines

As a general rule, all symptomatic ingestions in the esophagus require emergent removal if feasible.  Most gastric ingestions do not require emergent removal, exceptions include multiple magnets, sharp objects in stomach (possibly with surgery), and possibly absorptive objects (due to obstruction).

1. Button Batteries:

  • Even with “spent” batteries, there is enough residual charge to cause injury and all ingestions (even if asymptomatic) into the esophagus require emergent removal. If these batteries are in the stomach & asymptomatic, urgent removal is recommended if age < 5 years and BB ≥20 mm.

What is different in the proposed algorithm (Figure 1) compared with the Poison Center Guidelines (see:Button Battery Algorithm Link | gutsandgrowth) is more detail regarding concerns about aortoenteric fistula & what to do after endoscopy. Key points:

  • If active bleeding or unstable, endoscopic removal in OR with surgery/cardiovascular surgery is recommended.
  • If any esophageal injury, recommendations include admission, NPO, and IV antibiotics.  Chest imaging (CT angiography &/or MRI of chest) can help decide length of stay.  In those with injury close to aorta, continuation of NPO/antibiotics are recommended along with followup imaging every 5-7 days.  In those with clinical deterioration (eg. hematemesis w/in 21 days of injury), ‘assume aortoenteric fistula and emergently prepare for cardiovascular surgery.’

2. Magnets.  Figure 3 provides algorithm for single and multiple magnets (adapted from Hussain SZ et al. JPGN 2012; 55: 239-42).

  • For single magnets, emergent removal from esophagus is recommended (like all other foreign bodies) if difficulty managing secretions, otherwise urgent esophageal removal is suggested.
  • If there are multiple magnets within reach of endoscope, then if symptomatic, emergent removal is recommended, otherwise, urgent removal is suggested.
  • For asymptomatic magnets beyond the reach of an upper endoscopy, potential for colonoscopy, or enteroscopy for removal &/or serial x-rays to follow progression. If there is no progression on X-rays (every 8-12 hrs) &/or development of symptoms, then surgical removal/endoscopic removal is recommended.

3. Sharp objects. Figure 4 provides algorithm.

  • Emergent removal from esophagus/stomach is recommended (like all other foreign bodies) if difficulty managing secretions, otherwise urgent esophageal removal is suggested. For radiolucent objects, if the ingestion was witnessed, urgent removal is suggested; if not witnessed, then further imaging (CT, esophagram, MRI) could be considered.
  • With regard to sharp foreign bodies beyond the reach of an endoscope, “follow clinically with serial x-ray.  Enteroscopy or surgical removal considered if symptoms develop or >3 days without passage.”
  • Despite the low risk of severe morbidity/mortality from sharp objects (beyond esophagus), report recommends urgent “removal of all of the sharp objects within the reach of the endoscope..if possible.”

4. Food impaction in esophagus.  If symptomatic, emergent removal; if asymptomatic, then urgent removal.  Biopsies of the esophagus are recommended with endoscopy (Figure 5).

5. Coin ingestions/Blunt objects. Figure 6. “>250,000 ingestions and 20 deaths reported in the United States during a 10-year period.”

  • For esophagus: If symptomatic, emergent removal; if asymptomatic, then urgent removal.  Report recommends check X-ray immediately before sedation. While the report does not address this, a possible alternative to x-ray would be the use of a metal detector.  “Consider glucagon if distal esophageal coin or if endoscopy not readily available.”
  • For stomach: No endoscopy needed. Repeat X-ray at 2 weeks.  Remove if not passed w/in 2-4 weeks. Report recommends check X-ray immediately before sedation. While the report does not address this, a possible alternative to x-ray would be the use of a metal detector.
  • For small bowel: removal (enteroscopy/surgery) if symptomatic.
  • For objects >25 mm width or >6 cm in length –> should be removed from stomach urgently.

6. Superabsorbent objects.  The authors describe ingestions from materials from toys and diapers with polymers that can retain ‘up to 100 times their weight in water.”

  • For esophagus: If symptomatic, emergent removal; if asymptomatic, then urgent removal.
  • Stomach/small intestine: urgent removal is recommended

The authors state these recommendations are based on consensus rather than strong evidence and are “no substitute for clinical judgement.”

Take-home message: These guidelines are a good starting point to improve the management of children with foreign bodies.

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Disclaimer: These blog posts are for educational purposes only. Specific dosing of medications/diets (along with potential adverse effects) should be confirmed by prescribing physician/nutritionist.  This content is not a substitute for medical advice, diagnosis or treatment provided by a qualified healthcare provider. Always seek the advice of your physician or other qualified health provider with any questions you may have regarding a condition.

University of Chicago

University of Chicago

N2U Part 5 -Biliary Atresia and Kwashiokor

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2015 N2U Syllabus & Presentations

Growth Failure, Macro- and Micronutrients, and Biliary Atresia  James Heubi   (Syllabus pg 62 –68)

Case in Point:  AK is a 5-month-old Hispanic male with biliary atresia s/p hepatoportoenterostomy at age 6 weeks who was seen in clinic with a 2 month history of poor nutritional intake (full details on syllabus pg 62).

Initial Focus/Management:

  • Increasing caloric density 24 cal with MCT-containing formula, then up to 30 cal (avoid monotherapy with portagen due to EFA deficiency); if not effective, then nocturnal tube feedings (NG/NJ) are likely to be needed. Parenteral supplementation –not being used at Cincinnati in pretransplant patients.
  • Ascites, when present, limits fluid volume intakes. Aldactone (often at about 3 mg/kg/day) can be helpful; check to make sure urine sodium indicates some natriuresis.
  • Fat soluble vitamin supplementation/micronutrient supplementation (when needed). Check levels at about 3 months of age. If Vitamin D (25-OH) is greater than 20 (in pediatrics), this is probably reasonable in this population. With Alagille/hyperlipidemic patients, need to correct vitamin E for cholesterol (or total lipid) (Sokol RJ, Heubi JE, et al. NEJM 1984; 310: 1209-12).
  • For biliary atresia, direct bilirubin >2 indicates need for fat soluble monitoring; in other cholestatic conditions (eg. Alagille, PFIC), don’t rely on direct bilirubin as fat soluble deficiency can develop with lower direct bilirubins.
  • Vitamin D supplementation: 1000 units/kg/day Drisdol D3 (expensive). D3 preferred but D2 usually OK. Monitor levels and increase dosing if needed. Check monthly until adequate level. Alternatives: Bio-D-Mulsion Forte (D3) http://www.bioticsresearch.com/node/1570, Nature’s Blend Ultra Strength (D3). http://www.nationalvitamin.com
  • Vitamin E supplementation: Liqui-E (w TPGS) or Nutr-E-sol 15-25 IU/kg/day. Alternative: Aqua-E
  • Vitamin A supplementation/monitoring: AquaADEKs is reasonable supplement. Harder to monitor vitamin A levels.
  • If failed Kasai, likely headed to transplantation fairly quickly.

Kwashiokor –Rob Shulman (Syllabus pgs 21-33)

Case in point: 15 mo –Fed a diet of coconut and rice milks managed by pediatrician and chiropractor.  (This can occur with BRAT diets as well.)

Key points:

  • Terminology: from language spoken in a region of Ghana. Term developed to describe the sickness a baby gets when the new baby comes. This is a result of child who gets displaced from breastfeeding as the result of a sibling being born. Willaims CD. Lancet 1935; 226: 1151-52. Original description
  • Etiology: protein deficiency, protein quality, infection (‘pushes them over the edge’)
  • Microbiome in Kwashiokor References: Tilg et al. Nature Rev. 2013;10:261-262.  Smith et al. Science. 2013;339:548-554. Initial study showed discrepant microbiome in identical twins with and without Kwashiokor. Followup study by placing stool (from Kwashiokor and from healthy children) in mice. Stool from twin with Kwashiokor resulted in mice malnutrition (Garrett W. NEJM 2013; 368: 1746-47). (Related blogs:Gut microbiomes of Malawian twin pairs discordant for … and Microbiome and the risk of Kwashiokor | gutsandgrowth )

Feeding plan/ Prevention of Refeeding Syndrome:

  • Check labs –including protime, zinc, phosphorus, potassium, magnesium
  • Oral feedings with standard formulas/diet (usually). Limit feeding volumes initially for 1st week Kwashiokor (page 37 in syllabus) –about ½ full caloric intake (consider ½ strength formula).
  • ‘Advancing diet slowly is not needed with other forms of malnutrition.’
  • Give multivitamin. In 3rd world, it is recommended to add additional vitamin A (200,000 units once).
  • Hold off on iron (even in multivitamin) until improved for a few weeks.
  • Albumin infusions are not recommended àassociated with worse outcomes
  • Refeeding syndrome is an iatrogenic disease! This is associated with Kwashiokor and not with other malnutrition diseases.
  • Add Kphos to feedings (eg Neutraphos, NeutraphosK). Usually drop in phosphorus drop most likely in first 48 hours –monitor carefully in first few days and again during increments in feeding.
  • In 3rd World countries, addition of antibiotics (amoxicillin or cefdinir for 7 d) to therapeutic regimens for uncomplicated severe acute malnutrition associated with a significant improvement in recovery and mortality rates. In U.S. this translates to low threshold for using antibiotics but not required in every case.

Disclaimer: This blog entry has abbreviated/summarized this presentation. Though not intentional, some important material is likely to have been omitted; in addition, transcription errors are possible as well.

These blog posts are for educational purposes only. Specific dosing of medications/diets (along with potential adverse effects) should be confirmed by prescribing physician/nutritionist.  This content is not a substitute for medical advice, diagnosis or treatment provided by a qualified healthcare provider. Always seek the advice of your physician or other qualified health provider with any questions you may have regarding a condition.

Subway Art (Chicago)

Subway Mosaic Art (Chicago)