A drug that makes a difference: ondansetron

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Ondansetron (Zofran ®) use has become more common and is making a difference (JPGN 2012; 54: 381-86).  This drug has been a terrific advance for so many individuals with disorders that provoke vomiting and nausea.  Not only does it have a high degree of effectiveness, but side effects are also quite uncommon.

The cited study documents ondansetron’s increasing use in Toronto.  This retrospective cohort study of children younger than 18 years with gastroenteritis examined emergency room visits between 2003 and 2008.  20% of 22,125 charts were selected randomly for review (n=3508 patients in final analysis).  During the study period, intravenous rehydration decreased from 27% to 13% and ondansetron use increased from 1% to 18%.  Associated with ondansetron use, mean length of stay decreased from 8.6 to 5.9 hours.  Also, the week following the index visit, there was a reduction in return visits from 18% to 13% as well as decreased need for intravenous rehydration (7% to 4%).

The authors state that analysis elsewhere has indicated that appropriate usage of ondansetron for this indication could result in savings of more than $65 million each year in the U.S.  The main limitation of this study is that other factors could have changed during the study period and resulted in some of these improvements; though, this institution did not have any major changes which could be identified.

Of course, ondansetron is used in many other clinical settings besides the emergency room.  Though the drug is expensive, it is worth the cost.

Additional references:

  • -Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med 2008; 162: 858-65.  Use of antiemetic agents in AGE.
  • -Ann Emerg Med 2008; 52: 22e6-9e6.  Use of oral ondansetron in children with AGE who failed oral rehydration.
  • -NEJM 2006; 354: 1698. Use of zofran did not decrease hospitalization but did decrease need for IV fluids and decreased vomiting.

Pediatric capsule endoscopy experience

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Capsule endoscopy (CE) in pediatric gastroenterology has become a routine procedure.   The experience of our group is noted in a recent study (JPGN 2012; 54: 409-13).  In this study, our single pediatric center reviewed 284 CE procedures (277 patients) over a five-year period.  The youngest patient to swallow a capsule was 4.6 years old.  Twenty capsules were placed endoscopically, with the youngest & smallest patient being 3 years old (13.5kg).  A patency capsule was used in 23 patients.

Overall, the yield with CE was high. 205 (72%) had positive findings; 154 (54%) had small bowel findings.  The study also compared its data to pediatric and adult meta-analysis.  Similar to other pediatric studies, Crohn disease was the most common indication; in adult studies, CE is used mostly for occult GI bleeding and anemia.  CE procedures did not reach the colon in 65 (21%); 36 of these incomplete procedures had positive findings.

Capsule retention occurred in seven patients (2.4%) which is similar to the meta-analysis studies as well.  Six of the seven had surgery due to capsule retention, though one surgical procedure had been planned and capsule helped identify stricture site.  In addition, one of the seven was retrieved through a tight ileostomy.

Additional references:

  • -Gastroenteology 2010; 139: 1468. Predictions for upcoming advances.
  • -Gastroenterology 2009; 137: 1197. Strongest indication -obscure bleeding.
  • -JPGN 2009; 49: 196. Capsule retention in 5.2% in known IBD. overall 3 of 207 studies (1.4%) To date, >170,000 capsule studies worldwide.
  • -Gastrointest Endosc 2008; 68: 255-66. Authors recommend using CT/colonoscopy as primary investigations & reserving capsule only if negative initial evaluation. 17% of pts had asymptomatic partial small bowel obstruction -contraindicating use of capsule.
  • -Endoscopy 2008; 40: 30-35 & -IBD 2008; 14: 1287. Consider wireless capsule before IPAA in UC.
  • -IBD 2008; 14: 1219. Correlation of capsule & MRI enterolysis. Capsule detected more mucosal lesions.
  • -JPGN 2008; 47: 31. Capsule endoscopy may reclassify pediatric IBD
  • –Speed matters.  Additional references listed on this previous blog entry.

Staggering cost of obesity

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For a single individual, the burden of obesity can be enormous; for a society, the projected costs for health and economics are hard to fathom (Lancet 2011; 378: 815-25).

By 2030, this report projects that there will be 65 million more obese adults in the US and 11 million more in the UK.  This is expected to cause an additional  6-8.5 million cases of diabetes, 5.7-7.3 million cases of heart disease/stroke, about 500,000 cases of cancer, and loss of 26-55 milion life years.  The medical costs are estimated to increase $48-66 billion/year in the US.

These projections are based on expected increases in the percentage of individuals who are obese.  In 2008, approximately 32% of US adult men were obese based on BMI; in 2030, the projected number is 50-51% for men.  Among US women: 35% in 2008 –> 45-52% in 2030.

To flatten the curve on spending, we will need to look at flattening other curves.

Additional references:

  • A liver disease tsunami
  • -NEJM 2011; 365: 1597. Persistence of hormonal adaptations with weight loss. Due to persistent changes in hormones like leptin & peptide YY, hard to keep wt off -result is increased appetite.
  • -NEJM 2009; 360: 859. Composition of diet does not seem to be important. Total calories important.
  • -Pediatrics 2007; 120: suppl 4: S164-S287.
  • -NEJM 2007; 357: 370. obestiy spreads in social network.  Your friends may be more influential than your genetics.
  • -Gastroenterology 2007; 132: 2085-2276. Special issue on obesity issues.
  • -NEJM 2006; 355: 1593. Case review on obesity c DDx and mgt.
  • -Pediatrics 2003; 112: 424. Position paper on prevention in childhood.
  • -Gastroenterology 2001; 120: 669-681. (review)
  • -J Pediatr 2005; 147: 429. TV viewing predicts adult BMI.
  • -Lancet 2001; 357: 505-8. One extra soda/day incr risk of obesity by 60%
  • -NEJM 1999; 341: 1097. BMI & mortality.

VTE with IBD

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In our children’s hospital, work is underway to systematically screen children for risk factors for venous thromboembolism (VTE) and to establish an algorithm to lower the risk of a VTE with either mechanical or pharmacologic treatments. One of the risk factors has been the presence of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD).  The absolute risk of IBD for VTE is not clear.  However, a recent study relates the risk among a large Danish population of adults and children (Gut 2011; 60: 937-43).

The study included 49,799 patients with IBD (14,211 Crohn’s, 35,229 UC) and compared with 477,504 members of the general population.  VTE risk for IBD was increased with HR of 2.0.  The incidence of VTE increased with age; however, the RR was higher in younger patients.  Among those less than 20 years, HR was 6.6 for VTE; HR 6.0 for DVT and 6.4 for PE.  In this age group, “unprovoked” VTE had HR of 4.5.  Unprovoked VTE was defined as event occurring without malignancy, recent surgery, pregnancy or fracture.

Although the relative risk is increased, the authors caution that the absolute risk in younger patients is low.  In those IBD patients less than 20 years, the incidence rate was 8.9 per 10,000 person years.  In contrast, in those IBD patients older than 60, the incidence rate was 54.6 per 10,000 person years.  There did not seem to be a significant difference between Crohn’s disease and ulcerative colitis in absolute or relative risk. The authors conclude that in those IBD patients younger than 20 years without ‘other VTE risk factors or limited mobility, the benefits of prophylaxis may no longer outweigh the risks.”  In older patients (>60 years), even outpatients experiencing flares might benefit from VTE prophylaxis.

Additional references:

  • -NEJM 2012; 366: 860 (letter to editor). Authors emphasize importance of VTE with UC, especially during flares.
  • -Lancet 2010; 375: 657-63. VTE with active IBD and in remission.
  • -Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol 2008; 6: 41-5. Thrombosis with IBD.
  • -Gut 2004; 53: 542-8. IBD -risk factor for VTE?
  • -Gut 2004; 53 (suppl 5): v1-16. IBD guidelines for management.

More on PNAC

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In a previous blog entry (PNAC, PNALD, and IFAC), reduction in intralipids was shown to improve parenteral nutrition associated cholestasis (PNAC).  This change in the use of parenteral nutrition (PN) and others are emphasized in a review article by the American Pediatric Surgical Association (J Ped Surg 2012; 47: 225-40).

This review tries to provide evidence-based guidelines for PNAC with ratings of the evidence for each of their recommendations.

A summary of their findings is given in Figure 1 of the article.  Key points:

  • PN duration is a significant predictor for cholestasis
  • NEC & sepsis both play a role in the development of PNAC
  • Insufficient data to determine if antibiotics used to decrease bacterial translocation/hepatocyte damage may be beneficial
  • Fat emulsion restriction may reduce PNAC without detriment to growth
  • Fish-oil based lipid emulsions are safe and effective for PNAC.  “Despite the promise of Omegaven…the literature is insufficient to provide a recommendation higher than grade C.”  (Grade C= “possibly effective, ineffective, or harmful;” requires at least 2 convincing class III studies [class III studies generally are non-randomized non-blinded studies]).  Information to obtain Omegaven:

http://www.oley.org/documents/How_Physicians_Can_Obtain_Omegaven.pdf
http://www.oley.org/lifeline/PN_Liver_Disease.html

  • Strong evidence that higher initial protein load does not increase the risk of PNAC
  • Strong evidence that trophic feeds are beneficial to reduce PNAC
  • Weak/conflicting evidence that there is any benefit of Aminosyn over Trophamine
  • Weak evidence to support the routine removal of copper or manganese from PN as a prophylactic strategy to prevent PNAC
  • Weak evidence to support prophylactic cycling of PN to reduce PNAC.  There are also concerns about the development of hypoglycemia in preterm infants off of PN
  • Use of CCK is not recommended
  • Oral bile acids may result in improvement
  • Erythromycin may promote motility and facilitate enteral feeds, thereby reducing PNAC

HEROES trial

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HEROES is definitely a catchy acronym (Arch Intern Med 2011; 171: 1929-36); HEROES is short for Helicobacter eradication relief of dyspeptic symptoms.

In pediatric practice, when Helicobacter pylori infection is identified, efforts are made to eradicate it.  However, studies have not been conclusive about whether this is beneficial for individuals with ‘functional dyspepsia.’  A 2006 Cochrane review of 21 trials found only 6 were positive for eradication.  Previous trials had not focused on primary care patients who may be more prone to respond.  As such, the investigators randomly assigned 404 patients (adults with average age of 46 years) into a group (n=201) treated with antibiotics and a control group (n=203); this was a randomized double-blind placebo-controlled clinical trial at a single center.  All eligible patients had to meet the Rome III criteria for functional dyspepsia and have H pylori infection.  Individuals with heartburn and irritable bowel were excluded. The antibiotic group received omeprazole, amoxicillin, and clarithromycin whereas the control group received omeprazole and placebo –both groups received treatment for 10 days.

In the antibiotic group, 49% achieved at least a 50% reduction in symptoms at 12 months; the control group had a 36.5% response.  Overall, 78.1% of the antibiotic cohort improved compared with 67.5% in the control cohort.

Although the findings of the study indicate improvement with a course of antibiotics, what to do with these results is not clear.  Worldwide, at least 50% of the population is infected by H pylori.  In addition, dyspeptic symptoms afflict up to 40% of the adult population in Western countries.  Due to the enormity of these problems, translating the results of this study into practical treatment strategies is difficult.

Additional references:

  • -JPGN 2011; 52: 387. Impact of Rome III criteria on yield. Still 2.8% w/o alarm symptoms that had significant endoscopic findings.
  • -Clin Gastro & Hep 2008; 6: 746. Antidepressant venlafaxine not effective in functional dyspepsia in double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled study. n=160.
  • -Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2006; (2): CD002096. Rx of H pylori in functional dyspepsia.
  • -Gastroenterology 2007; 133: 799. Natural hx of functional disorders: 20% persist w same Sx, 40% develop other Sx, 40% get better. Large study from Olmstead county (n=1365)
  • -Gastroenterology 2007; 132: 1684.  Changes in cerebral blood flow during gastric balloon distention in dyspepsia.
  • -Gastroenterology 2006; 130: 1466-79. Functional gastroduodenal d/o. Acid suppression is 1st line Rx.
  • -Gastroenterology 2005; 129:1753-55, 1756-80, 1711. Mgt & guidelines for dyspepsia. In pts < 55 w/o alarm sx, test for H pylori and rx c PPI. In pts who don’t respond, consider EGD. Other Rx unclear: prokinetics, anticholinergics, antidepressants.
  • -Gastroenterology 2004; 127; 1239. Review of functional dyspepsia. Rx initial c acid-blocker/prokinetic reasonable, if not helpful, consider tricyclic, or clonidine. Eliminate H pylori. Sumatriptan may help
  • -J Pediatr 2005; 146: 448, 500.  Dyspepsia in children often associated with delayed GE and reduced gastric volumes
  • -Gastroenterology 2003; 125: 1219-26. Algorithm suggested:1. chech H pylori 2. Rx c PPI/H2RA.  3. If persists, EGD.  If EGD neg, consider elavil
  • -Clinical Gastro & Hepatology 2003; 1: 356. Increased Mast cells noted.
  • -Gastroenterology 2002; 123: 1778, 2132. Use of hypnosis for NUD.
  • -Ann Intern Med 2001; 134: 361-369. Meta-analysis of H pylori & NUD. Non-significant/minor improvement c eradication.

PNAC, PNALD, and IFAC

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Intravenous lipids may cause parenteral nutrition associated cholestasis (PNAC), parenteral nutrition associated liver disease (PNALD), or intestinal failure associated cholestasis (IFAC) (J Pediatr 2012; 160: 421-7 & editorial 361-2).  PNAC refers to cholestasis due to parenteral nutrition and PNALD refers to PNAC that has progressed to liver dysfunction or permanent liver injury.

In a previous blog (Four advances for intestinal failure), one of the advances for intestinal failure that was noted was the reduction of lipid infusions with parenteral nutrition which reduces IFAC.  This study adds additional information to this area.  In this prospective study, 31 patients were enrolled in a reduced IV fat emulsion group and compared with a matched historical control group.  The reduced fat group received 1gm/kg of a standard soybean-based lipid emulsion (liposyn 20%) twice weekly.  Patients were eligible if they received PN for >2 weeks and had a direct bilirubin >2.5 mg/dL.

Outcomes:

  • Total bilirubins dropped 0.73 mg/dL each week in the reduced fat group; in the control group, the bilirubin increased 0.29 mg/dL each week
  • Growth was similar in both groups
  • Essential fatty acid deficiency (biochemical not clinical features) was identified in 13 of 31 infants among the restricted IV fat emulsion group.

Essential fatty acid deficiency was defined as having a triene: tetraene ratio >0.05 (mild), >0.2 (moderate) or >0.4 (severe).

Limitations:

  • Historical control group & small study population
  • Fat-restricted group received enteral antibiotics which may have helped reduce cholestasis
  • Majority of patients with relatively short duration of TPN: 18 of 31 for less than one month

The reasons why lipids may contribute to PNAC/PNALD/IFAC include the presence of phytosterols.  This in turn may damage hepatocytes via the farnesoid X receptor.  One other aspect of the study was that the fat-restricted cohort had a higher mortality.  This was thought to be related to the cohort being sicker rather than to any nutritional effect.  Specific causes of death included respiratory failure in a patient with an abdominal wall defect, chylothorax/sepsis in a patient with a congenital diaphragmatic hernia, and cardiopulmonary failure in a patient with pulmonary hypoplasia.

The article does throw into question whether the use of a fish oil lipid preparation is needed to improve cholestasis.  In studies supporting fish oil preparations, a confounder was that the total lipid administered was reduced to 1 gm/kg/day in comparison to soybean lipids which were administered at 2-3 gm/kg/day.  This study suggests that reducing the total amount of lipid infusion is the more important factor.

The accompanying editorial makes a couple of useful points:

  • Increasing enteral feeds (>50%) is as effective as using less intravenous lipids
  • Use of standard lipids at 1gm/kg/day decreased IFAC from 15% to 4% in their intestinal failure patient population
  • Drastic reductions in lipids lead to essential fatty acid deficiency and should be avoided.
  • Use of Omegaven has not been shown to prevent liver fibrosis even with resolution of cholestasis; similarly, these studies do not inform fully on the long-term liver effects of reducing standard lipids
  • Neurologic followup will be important
  • Explains “Morton’s fork.”  John Morton was a 16th century Archbishop who wanted to increase taxes on people who were living lavishly.  In addition, he wanted to increase taxes on those living modestly (must be hiding wealth).

Additional references:

  • -NEJM 2010; 362: 181.  Letter to editor describes use of fish oil in (n=125) Boston pediatric patients.
  • -JPGN 2009; 48: 209. n=12. SBS.  9/12 improved with Omegaven. 3 had transplant (L-ITx). No controls.
  • -Pediatrics 2008; 121: e678-86. n=18.  Use of fish oil improved cholestasis compared to historical controls.
  • -Pediatrics 2006; 118: e197-e201.  Reversal of TPN-AC c IV omega-3 fatty acids (fish oil-derived) instead of intralipids

Another life-threatening complication of HCV

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Epidemiological studies have shown a causal relationship between B-cell non-Hodgkin lymphoma (B-NHL) and hepatitis C virus (HCV) (Hepatology 2012; 55: 634-641).  This is not simply an association but a cause and effect.

The cited reference reviews several aspects of this relationship including the mechanisms of lymphoproliferation, the epidemiology, the clinical manifestations, the treatment, the prognosis, and preventive measures.

  • With regard to epidemiology, the odds ratios are between 2.4 and 5.2.  This is a small risk compared to hepatocellular carcinoma.
  • Management: Lymphoma may regress with HCV treatment, indicating a role for HCV in pathogenesis.   HCV treatment may prevent the occurrence of B-NHLs as well.  For aggressive lymphomas, patients require systemic treatment with rituximab-based regimens (1st line treatment).
B-NHLs are not nearly as important as cirrhosis and hepatocellular carcinoma in terms of mortality and morbidity in patients with HCV.  It is nevertheless quite significant considering the number of infected persons worldwide.
Other related posts on HCV:

Additional references:

  • -Gastroenterology 2011; 140: 1182. Increasing HCC/Cirrhosis in HCV pts.
  • -Clinical Gastro & Hep 2008; 6: 451. HCV associated with increased risk of non-Hodgkins lymphoma. OR was 1.8 among n=4784 cases of NHL/n=6269 controls
  • -Clinical Gastro & Hep 2008; 6: 459. Overweight & obesity increase risk of HCC. n=1431 chronic HCV patients; 36% developed HCC over 10 year f/u. OR 1.9 of HCC if overweight & 3.1 OR of HCC if obese.
  • -NEJM 2002; 347: 89-95. regression of splenic lymphoma w HCV treatment.

TNF antagonists and UC

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In my fellowship (15 years ago), the use of thiopurines (eg. azathioprine, 6-mercaptopurine) for ulcerative colitis was debated.  Many physicians urged colectomy rather than using these drugs which could have long-term consequences.  At the time, the risk of thiopurines was less well-understood.  Over time, the use of these agents has become common when mesalamine products were ineffective.  The same issue comes up with TNF antagonists versus colectomy.

A recent study provides more information on the effectiveness of adalimumab for patients with moderate-to-severe UC but does not settle this debate (Gastroenterology 2012; 142: 257-65).  In this study, termed ‘ULTRA-2’ (Ulcerative colitis long-term remission and maintenance with adalimumab 2), the  efficacy of adalimumab for induction & maintenance of remission was studied in 494 patients.  This was a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study; average age was 40 years.

Clinical remission in the adalimumab group were 16.5% at 8 weeks (9.3% placebo).  At 52 weeks, 17.3% in the adalimumab group were in remission (8.5% placebo).  Among patients naive to anti-TNF agents, the response rate was 21.3% at week 8 & 22% at week 52.  Safety overall was similar in both groups; however, in the adalimumab group one patient developed gastric cancer and one developed squamous cell carcinoma.

The authors conclude that adalimumab is safe and more effective than placebo in inducing and maintaining remission among patients with moderate-to-severe UC.

A second study, also published this past month, looks at the use of infliximab for maintenance therapy for UC (Inflamm Bowel Dis 2012; 18: 201-11).  Patients who had achieved benefit from ACT-1 and ACT-2 studies were followed for three years.  Dosage of infliximab could be adjusted.  A total of 229 patients entered the study.  During the study, 70 patients (30.6%) discontinued infliximab due to adverse effects (10.5%), lack of efficacy (4.8%) or other reasons (15.2%); the majority were able to continue infliximab.  The authors indicate that no new safety issues were identified. Yet, there were two deaths among the infliximab group including a 19 year-old nonsmoker who developed lung cancer and a lethal case of histoplasmosis.

Because the improvement compared to placebo is modest with both of these agents, the question about whether to use these medications or proceed to surgery in UC patients is unanswered.

Additional references:

  • -Aliment Pharmacol Ther. 2008 Oct 15;28(8):966-72. Epub 2008 Jul 24.  Long-term outcome of adalimumab therapy for ulcerative colitis with intolerance or lost response to infliximab: a single-centre experience.
  • -Am J Gastroenterol (Oussalah A et al) 2010; 105: 2617-25. Multicenter study of IFX for UC
  • -Gastroenterology 2010; 138: 2282. Severe pediatric UC. 25/33 responded to IFX. colectomy rate 19% at 1 year.
  • -Gastroenterology 2009; 137: 1204 (ed), 1250. lower colectomy rates at 54wks in IFX vs placebo (+concomitant meds): 10% vs. 17%.
  • -Clin Gastro & Hep 2008; 6: 1112. Do NOT use CYA post infliximab and vice versa. n=19. 1 death due to sepsis. Remission rates occur in ~1/3rd but are of short duration.
  • -NEJM 2005; 2462. 69% clinical response @ 8 weeks (vs. 37% placebo) & 45% at week 54 (vs. 20% placebo).
  • -JPGN 2004; 38: 298. 82% short-term response, 63% sustained response; n=16.

Common to be “D-ficient”

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Many of the children that a pediatric gastroenterologist sees are at risk for Vitamin D deficiency, including children with inflammatory bowel disease, cystic fibrosis, celiac disease, and liver diseases.  In addition, vitamin D deficiency is widespread: in U.S. 50% of children aged 1-5 years and 70% 6-11 years are vitamin D deficient or insufficient. A thorough review on this “D-lightful” vitamin was in a recent JPEN (JPEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr 2012; 9S-19S).

History: In 1822 Sniadecki recognized children in urban but not rural Poland developed rickets. He postulated the effects of the sun as the reason for rickets; his idea was dismissed.  In 1920s, the concept of irradiating milk to prevent rickets emerged. In 1950s, outbreak of hypercalcemia in infants in Great Britain was thought to be related to vitamin D fortification and curtailed this practice in Europe.  However, these cases were likely due to Williams syndrome.

Sources of vitamin D: oily fish (salmon), cod liver oil, some mushrooms, egg yolk, & sunlight. Exposure of an adult in a bathing suit to one minimal erythemal dose (MED) is equivalent to ingesting 20,000 IUs of Vitamin D. (The minimal dose that induces any visible reddening at that point is defined as one MED.)

Effect of sunscreen: A sun protection factor (SPF) of 30 absorbs approximately 98% of solar ultaviolet radiation & thus lowers vitamin D production by 98%.

Ethnicity: Melanin is an effective SPF.  A person of african-american descent, on average, has an SPF of 15, which reduces vitamin D production by 90%.

Age: Aging decreases 7-dehydrocholesterol in human skin.  Due to this, the elderly produce much less vitamin D.  For example, a 70 year old has a 75% reduction compared to a 20 year old.

Forms of vitamin D:  25-hydroxyvitamin D (25OH-D) is the major circulating form of vitamin D & physicians measure 25OH-D. 25OH-D is metabolized in kidney to 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D (1,25OH-D), also called calcitriol.  This is the most biologically-active and is responsible for increasing intestinal calcium absorption and mobilizing calcium from bone.  However, 1,25OH-D provides no information vitamin D deficiency; it can be elevated or normal in deficiency states.

  • Cholecalciferol (vitamin D-3) is formed in the skin from 5-dihydrotachysterol.
  • Ergocalciferol (Vitamin D-2) is the form in Drisdol (8000 IU/mL) & Ergocalciferol Capsules (1.25 mg =50,000 USP Units)

Vitamin D deficiency:  The exact numbers are debated.  The institute of medicine (IOM) has considered individuals deficient if 25OH-D is <20 ng/mL.  The Endocrine Society and the author suggest vitamin D deficiency as <20 ng/mL & insufficiency as <30 ng/mL.  The author recommends ideal levels between 40-60 ng/mL.

Consequences of deficiency:

Osteoporosis, Osteopenia, Rickets (see references below): Bone weakening occurs due to loss of phosphorus from the kidneys.  Vitamin D deficiency lowers accrual of calcium in skeleton and leads to osteoporosis, osteopenia, and rickets. Imaging for rickets: the best single radiographic view for infants and children younger than 3 years is an anterior view of the knee that reveals the metaphyseal end and epiphysis of the femur and tibia. This site is best because growth is most rapid in this location, thus the changes are accentuated.

Nonskeletal consequences: vitamin D deficiency is associated with increased risk for preeclampsia, URIs, asthma, diabetes (type 1), multiple sclerosis, hypertension, and schizophrenia.

Treatment:

  • Infants who are breastfed should be receiving supplemental vitamin D, 400 IU/day.
  • Adults/children (>1 year) RDA 600 IU/day –mostly from diet per IOM. Yet author states, “it is unrealistic to believe that diet alone can ….provide this requirement.”
  • In vitamin D deficient patients: (initial treatment) 2000 IU/day or 50,000 IU/week for 6 weeks.
Toxicity from vitamin D (from NEJM 2010; 364: 248-254.): “Toxicity from vitamin D supplementation is rare and consists principally of acute hypercalcemia, which usually results from doses that exceed 10,000 IU per day; associated serum levels of 25-hydroxyvitamin D are well above 150 ng per milliliter (375 nmol per liter). The tolerable upper level of daily vitamin D intake recently set by the Institute of Medicine (IOM) is 4000 IU.”

Additional references:

  • -Pediatrics 2008; 122: 398. Should give 400 IU/day to breastfed babies. Consequences of Vit D deficiency: increased risk for DM, multiple sclerosis, cancer (breast, prostate,colon), rickets, and schizophrenia. Article lists vit D content of foods (high in cod liver oil, shrimp, fortified milk, many fish). Severe deficiency when < 5ng/mL, deficient if < 15 ng/mL; probably should be >32 ng/mL. Causes of vit D deficiency: decreased synthesis (due to lack of sun -skin pigmentation, sunscreen/clothing, geography, clouds), decreased intake, decreased maternal stores & breastfeeding, malabsorption (eg celiac, CF, EHBA, cholestasis), increased degradation; treatment of rickets: double-dose of vitamin d (~1000 IU/day for babies & 5000 for older kids) x 3-4 months along with calcium (30-75/mg/kg/day). Follow Ca/phos/alk phos monthly. Alternatively, give ~100,000 units over 1-5 days.
  • -JPEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr. 2011;35:308-316-Results: The study included 504 IBD patients (403 Crohn’s disease [CD] and 101 ulcerative colitis [UC]) who had a mean disease duration of 15.5 years in CD patients and 10.9 years in UC patients; 49.8% were vitamin D deficient, with 10.9% having severe deficiency. Vitamin D deficiency was associated with lower HRQOL (regression coefficient –2.21, 95% confidence interval [CI], –4.10 to –0.33) in CD but not UC (regression coefficient 0.41, 95% CI, –2.91 to 3.73). Vitamin D deficiency was also associated with increased disease activity in CD (regression coefficient 1.07, 95% CI, 0.43 to 1.71). Conclusions: Vitamin D deficiency is common in IBD and is independently associated with lower HRQOL and greater disease activity in CD. There is a need for prospective studies to assess this correlation and examine the impact of vitamin D supplementation on disease course.
  • -JPGN 2011;53: 361. similar prevalence of low Vitamin D as general population –58% with less than 32.
  • -JPGN 2011; 53: 11. Guidelines for bone disease with inflammatory bowel disease.
  • -Pediatrics 2010; 125: 633. Increasing Vit D deficiency noted in minority children. n=290. 22% w levels <20, 74% <30.
  • -Hepatology 2011; 53: 1118. Good vitamin D levels are another favorable predictive factor in antiviral response to Hep C along with IL28B.
  • -NEJM 2010; 364: 248-254. Vitamin D insufficiency. Levels between 20-30 may be OK -not enough evidence to determine conclusively whether this level is detrimental
  • -J Pediatr 2010; 156: 948. High rate among african americans with asthma, 86%. n=63.
  • -Pediatrics 2009; 124:e362. n=6275. 9% of pediatric patients vit D deficient & 61% were insufficient.
  • -Pediatrics 2009; 124:e371. n=3577. low 25OH-D levels inversely assoc with SBP/metabolic syndrome.
  • -NEJM 2009; 360: 398. case report of rickets
  • -J Pediatr 2003; 143: 422 & 434
  • -Pediatrics 2003; 111: 908. 200 IU Vit D recommended for all breastfed infants.
  • -J Pediatr 2000;137: 153 & 143.. Nutritional rickets–primarily in blacks; rec vitamin D 400 IU per day.